Kilimokwanza: Soil Health as the Bedrock of Food Security in the EAC

How the EAC can close the soil–food security gap with track-specific policy, AgriTech, and scalable soil stewardship.

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The East African Community (EAC) stands at a pivotal moment. The intertwined crises of soil degradation and food insecurity risk eroding decades of development and destabilizing the region’s future. This report presents a comprehensive analysis of soil stewardship and its direct relationship to food security across the eight EAC Partner States: Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.

Core Thesis. The EAC’s deepening food security crisis is fundamentally rooted in systemic soil resource degradation. This foundational vulnerability is amplified by a powerful trifecta: accelerating climate change, relentless demographic growth, and—in several member states—protracted conflict.

Key Findings. A stark “two‑track” reality defines the region:

• Track 1 — Policy & Degradation States (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda). These relatively stable countries face a chronic soil degradation crisis—erosion, acidity, nutrient mining, and declining organic matter—despite increasingly sophisticated policy frameworks. The central constraint is the implementation gap between well‑designed policies and widespread smallholder adoption.
• Track 2 — Conflict & Collapse States (DRC, Somalia, South Sudan, Burundi). Here, catastrophic food insecurity is driven primarily by conflict, state fragility, and displacement; soil degradation is often a consequence rather than the proximate cause. Agricultural systems have fractured, markets are disrupted, and humanitarian needs dominate.

Region‑wide, land degradation costs East Africa an estimated USD 65 billion annually in lost productivity. The human cost is greater still, with East Africa accounting for over half of Africa’s chronically undernourished population. Progress toward SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) has reversed since 2015.

High‑Level Recommendations.

• National (Two‑Track Approach).
  • Stable states: Shift from policy design to funded implementation; reform blanket input subsidies toward Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) and targeted soil testing, lime access, and extension.
  • Conflict‑affected states: Embed agricultural recovery and sustainable land management (SLM) within peacebuilding, humanitarian, and reconstruction frameworks.
• Regional (EAC Secretariat). Establish a Regional Soil Health & Food Security Framework that differentiates strategies across tracks; harmonize seed, fertilizer, and SPS standards; enable cross‑border policy learning.
• International Partners. Expand flexible, long‑term programs (e.g., Food Systems Resilience Program—FSRP), scale low‑cost agroecological practices, leverage AgriTech to bridge the implementation gap, and invest in national soil information systems.

Bottom Line. Soil health is the bedrock of East Africa’s food security, economic stability, and human development. Strategic, context‑specific investment in this living resource is not merely an agricultural priority—it is a precondition for regional peace and prosperity.

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Part I — The Regional Nexus of Soil Health and Food Security

The EAC is bound by shared ecosystems, river basins, and markets—and by a common vulnerability: an overwhelming dependence on an agricultural sector undermined by degradation of its most fundamental asset, soil. While national circumstances vary, member states face a shared set of environmental and socio‑economic pressures that tightly link soil fate to food security outcomes.

1.1 The EAC Agricultural Landscape

The EAC is a dynamic and growing bloc of ~343 million people over 5.4 million km². Agriculture underpins livelihoods and macroeconomic stability across the region.

Economic Centrality. Agriculture employs up to 80% of the rural workforce and contributes roughly 25–33% of GDP in many Partner States. It is also a primary source of foreign exchange (tea, coffee, horticulture, livestock products). This deep reliance renders economies acutely sensitive to productivity and environmental health shocks.

Demographic Pressure & Production Systems. Rapid population growth intensifies pressure on finite land and water resources. Production remains dominated by smallholder, largely rain‑fed systems with low mechanization and limited input use. In Tanzania, smallholders typically manage 0.9–3.0 ha plots, with about 70% of labor still by hand hoe—patterns mirrored across the region. The result is a precarious cycle of nutrient mining, land degradation, and declining yields.

Table 1. Socio‑Economic & Agricultural Indicators of EAC Partner States

Country	Capital	Accession	Population	Area (km²)	GDP (US$ bn)	GDP/cap (US$)	Agri % of GDP (approx.)	Labour in Agri (approx.)
Burundi	Gitega	2007	13,590,102	27,834	3.08	226.27	>40%	>90%
DRC	Kinshasa	2022	115,403,027	2,344,858	73.76	639.16	~20%	~70%
Kenya	Nairobi	2000	58,246,378	580,367	104.00	1,785.54	~33%	~56%
Rwanda	Kigali	2007	13,623,302	26,338	13.70	1,005.70	~25%	~70%
Somalia	Mogadishu	2024	13,017,273	637,657	12.80	983.62	~75%	~50% (agri & livestock)
South Sudan	Juba	2016	12,703,714	644,329	6.52	513.00	~15% (formal)	>80% (livelihoods)
Tanzania	Dodoma	2000	67,462,121	945,087	79.60	1,180.00	~30%	~70%
Uganda	Kampala	2000	49,283,041	241,550	56.31	1,142.58	~24%	~70%

Notes: Population and macro data compiled from multiple official and reputable sources; agriculture shares are indicative.

1.2 Cross‑Cutting Stressors: Climate, Water, Land

Climate Change (Threat Multiplier). East Africa is a climate vulnerability hotspot. Droughts, erratic rains, heat extremes, and floods already undermine yields and incomes. With +2°C warming, yields of staples (maize/sorghum/millet) may fall 5–10%, with larger declines at higher warming. Elevated CO₂ also risks reducing crop nutrient density (protein, Fe, Zn), threatening diet quality.

Water Resource Mismanagement. Water quality is deteriorating (agricultural runoff, industrial effluent, poor solid waste control). Governance is fragmented, and agricultural water infrastructure is under‑developed. Rain‑fed systems dominate; in Kenya, only ~2% of arable land is irrigated (vs ~6% SSA average; ~37% Asia), leaving farmers exposed to rainfall variability.

Deforestation & Agricultural Consequences. Land conversion and woodfuel extraction drive deforestation, accelerating erosion and depleting soil organic carbon (SOC) (declines up to ~48% post‑deforestation in comparable contexts). Result: fertility loss, hydrological disruption, rising dependence on purchased inputs, and further land clearing—a downward ecological spiral.

1.3 A Deepening Regional Food Insecurity

East Africa hosts >50% of Africa’s chronically undernourished despite being <25% of its population. Since 2015, progress toward SDG 2 has reversed; global shocks (COVID‑19, Ukraine conflict) magnified vulnerabilities. Recent estimates indicate ~63 million people in parts of the Horn face acute food insecurity (IPC Phase 3+).

International Response. Multilaterals have mobilized large‑scale resources (e.g., World Bank up to $45B for food crisis; FSRP for Eastern & Southern Africa). CGIAR advances innovations from climate‑resilient germplasm to ISFM and digital advisories (e.g., AgWise) delivering climate‑informed, location‑specific recommendations.

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Part II — National Assessments

A consistent framework is applied: Soil Health Status, Food Security Situation, and Policy/Management Interventions. The analyses illuminate a two‑track regional crisis demanding differentiated policy responses.

2.1 Republic of Kenya

Soil Health. >33% of soils degraded; erosion (~26 t/ha/yr), deforestation‑linked erosion surges, widespread acidity (~13% of land), depleted SOC (≥75% below sustainable thresholds in many areas), and salinization in irrigated ASAL pockets.

Food Security. Agriculture contributes ~33% GDP, employs ~56%. Chronic cereal deficits (maize, wheat, rice), low yields (maize ≈ 2 t/ha vs potential ~6 t/ha), heavy import exposure, and high, volatile prices.

Policy & Practice. Strong frameworks—National Agricultural Soil Management Policy (2020); broader Agriculture Policy (2021). Promoted SLM: terracing, conservation agriculture, ISFM, liming. Persistent adoption barriers; fertilizer subsidies criticized for inefficiency and for aggravating acidity absent soil testing.

AgriTech Leadership. Kenya leads in digital ag solutions (advisory, finance, market linkages). Data‑driven initiatives (e.g., Data4SoilHealth) and AI‑enabled tools offer pathways to close the policy‑practice gap.

2.2 United Republic of Tanzania

Soil Health. Widespread fertility depletion; erosion in highlands; acidity and salinity/sodicity affecting >2 million ha (notably in rice zones). In the Usangu Basin, ~90% of soils deficient in N, P, K, Mg; paddy yields average ~2.1 t/ha vs potential ~6.6 t/ha.

Food Security. A regional food basket (maize, cassava, rice, beans, banana) with periodic sub‑national IPC Phase 3 pockets (e.g., ~900,000 people in 21 councils, Nov 2023–Apr 2024). Dominant smallholder, rain‑fed systems heighten climate exposure.

Policy & Practice. Dual‑track strategy: National Fertiliser & Soil Health Strategy (2024–2030) to ensure access/efficiency of fertilizers and develop local industry; National Ecological Organic Agriculture Strategy (2023–2030) to scale ecological practices (agroecology, biodiversity). Supported by collaborations (e.g., ClimaSoilHealth) and promotion of agroforestry, organic amendments.

2.3 Republic of Uganda

Soil Health. Severe erosion (Mount Elgon, cattle corridor, western highlands); entrenched nutrient mining; declining fertilizer and organic input use (2003–2013) causing net depletion of N‑P‑K.

Food Security. Aggregate self‑sufficiency masks access/utilization constraints: ~38% in absolute poverty; widespread micronutrient/protein deficiencies; low dietary diversity.

Policy & Practice. Turning point with National Agroecology Strategy (2023/24–2028/29) to scale composting, rotations, integrated crop‑livestock systems. Government plans 69 soil labs and a “Farmer, Know Your Soil” campaign. Challenge: align legacy input‑centric policies with agroecology; redirect subsidies toward organic inputs and services. FAO supports data and capacity building.

2.4 Republic of Rwanda

Soil Health. Extreme erosion risk on steep slopes; small farm sizes; historic fertilizer access constraints.

Food Security. Smallholder‑dominated; persistent malnutrition (stunting) tied to poverty and low dietary diversity. Crop Intensification Program (CIP) and Land Use Consolidation boosted target staples but reduced on‑farm diversity in some zones.

Policy & Practice. Strong, top‑down execution: nationwide terracing (radical/progressive) for erosion control; ISFM as technical backbone (fertilizer + improved seed + organics + agroforestry). Building Rwanda Soil Information Service (RwaSIS) with partners (ICRAF, IITA) to enable precise, data‑driven recommendations and investment planning.

2.5 Republic of Burundi

Soil Health. Steep terrain and heavy rains drive severe erosion; compounded by deforestation, cultivation on marginal slopes, overgrazing, and extreme land pressure.

Food Security. Among the world’s most food‑insecure contexts: >65% below poverty line; >90% subsistence farmers on plots <0.5 ha. Alarming malnutrition: stunting ~52%, GAM ~6.1%; extremely low dietary diversity.

Policy & Practice. Donor‑led resilience: CERC cash transfers and input support (beans, fertilizer) post‑climate shocks; FAO Farmer Field Schools on erosion control, composting, improved seed, aquaculture, and small livestock to diversify incomes and restore soils.

2.6 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Soil Health. Enormous potential (~80 million ha arable); localized degradation in dense/highland zones (e.g., North Kivu). Primary constraint: insecurity and infrastructure collapse, not inherent soil limits.

Food Security. The world’s largest food crisis in absolute numbers: ~26.4 million IPC 3+. Conflict‑driven displacement disrupts planting; feeder road collapse isolates surplus/deficit markets; extreme poverty (~73% <$1.90/day) constrains food access.

Policy & Practice. Humanitarian dominance: FAO/WFP provide seeds, tools, feeder‑road rehabilitation, and community‑based erosion control/reforestation where feasible. Transition to development is constrained by volatile security.

2.7 Federal Republic of Somalia

Soil Health. Predominantly arid/semi‑arid with low‑quality soils; recurrent droughts accelerate desertification; extensive deforestation (charcoal) strips protective cover.

Food Security. Recurring crises; projected ~4.4 million IPC 3+ (Oct–Dec 2024). Domestic cereals (maize, sorghum) meet only ~22% of per‑capita needs; heavy import and aid dependence; planted area has shrunk by ~⅓ over 30 years.

Policy & Practice. Fragmented governance; UN‑led anticipatory action (cash transfers, drought‑tolerant seeds, water rehabilitation) and limited CSA pilots (greenhouses, drip) where security allows. Focus remains life‑saving assistance.

2.8 Republic of South Sudan

Soil Health. Fertile floodplains/greenbelts undermined by floods/droughts, conflict‑driven deforestation around displacement sites, and insecure land tenure discouraging conservation.

Food Security. Persistent national grain deficits; livelihoods devastated by conflict and extreme climate events; heavy reliance on humanitarian assistance.

Policy & Practice. FAO emergency livelihood kits (seed, tools, fishing); rebuilding seed systems and vaccine cold chains; promoting water harvesting and fuel‑efficient stoves to reduce forest pressure. Long‑term priority: shift from humanitarian dependency to resilient, market‑linked growth.

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Part III — Synthesis & Strategic Pathways

3.1 Comparative Insights: Policy & Practice Spectrum

Policy Maturity Continuum.

• High State Capacity / Top‑Down Implementation: Rwanda (terracing, consolidation, ISFM, RwaSIS)
• Advanced Policy / Implementation Gap: Kenya, Tanzania (sophisticated strategies; adoption barriers, subsidy inefficiencies)
• Emerging Shift: Uganda (agroecology pivot; need for subsidy realignment and institutional alignment)
• Policy Vacuum / Humanitarian Dominance: DRC, Somalia, South Sudan, Burundi (conflict/fragility constrain policy and investment; humanitarian frameworks prevail)

Effectiveness of SLM. Where applied, Soil & Water Conservation (SWC) and ISFM improve yields (often +10–20%), reduce erosion, and enhance dietary diversity and food consumption scores. Adoption barriers are economic (upfront costs, labor), institutional (tenure insecurity), informational (knowledge gaps), and service‑related (under‑resourced extension).

Table 2. Comparative Matrix — Soil Health & Food Security in the EAC

Country	Primary Soil Challenges	Key Food Security Drivers	Population IPC 3+ (latest)	Key Policy/Strategy
Kenya	Acidity, erosion, nutrient depletion	Low productivity, climate shocks, high prices	~3.1M (ASALs, 2023)	National Agricultural Soil Management Policy (2020)
Tanzania	Fertility depletion, salinity/sodicity, erosion	Localized drought, low productivity	~0.9M (2023/24)	National Fertiliser & Soil Health Strategy (2024–30)
Uganda	Nutrient mining, erosion, low input use	Poverty, malnutrition, low productivity	N/A	National Agroecology Strategy (2023/24–2028/29)
Rwanda	Severe erosion (topography)	Small farms, low dietary diversity	N/A	Land Use Consolidation / CIP; ISFM; RwaSIS
Burundi	Severe erosion, land pressure	Extreme poverty, degradation	~1.3M (2023/24)	Donor‑led resilience programs (CERC, FFS)
DRC	Localized erosion; conflict impacts	Protracted conflict, displacement	~26.4M (2022)	Humanitarian response frameworks
Somalia	Desertification, low soil quality	Drought shocks, conflict, import dependency	~4.4M (proj. 2024)	Humanitarian response frameworks
South Sudan	Flooding/drought; tenure issues	Conflict, climate shocks, displacement	~7.1M (proj. 2024)	Humanitarian + resilience programs

3.2 Innovation’s Role: AgriTech — Potential & Pitfalls

Regional Leadership. East Africa leads Africa in digital agriculture adoption (advisory, finance, markets), enabled by mobile connectivity and mobile money. Demonstrated impacts include higher productivity and profits where adopted.

Bridging the Divide. Barriers persist: device/data costs, language/UI design, digital literacy, and gender gaps in access and use. Without intentional design, AgriTech may exacerbate inequality.

Integrate Tech with Science. The frontier is precision, localized, climate‑informed agronomy—combining plot‑level soil/climate/remote‑sensing data with advisory delivery (SMS/IVR/apps). Properly scaled, such systems can boost yields ~30% while improving input efficiency and protecting soils.

3.3 Strategic Recommendations (Actionable)

For National Governments

• Fund Implementation at Scale. Ring‑fence budgets to operationalize soil and agroecology strategies; align inter‑ministerial mandates (agriculture, environment, water, local government).
• Reform Subsidies. Transition from blanket fertilizer subsidies to a balanced nutrient strategy: vouchers tied to soil tests, lime for acidity, support for organic inputs (compost, bio‑fertilizers), and micronutrients where deficient.
• Revitalize Extension. Professionalize and equip extension with mobility, digital tools, and performance metrics; embed ISFM and Climate‑Smart Agriculture (CSA); expand public‑private advisory partnerships.
• Secure Land Tenure. Prioritize land adjudication/registration to incentivize long‑term soil investments; integrate gender‑responsive land rights.
• Irrigation & Water Management. Invest in smallholder‑appropriate irrigation (small pumps, drip), water harvesting, and watershed management; regulate water quality.

Track‑Specific Priorities

• Track 1 (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda).
  • Scale soil testing networks and geo‑referenced soil maps; link to fertilizer blend recommendations.
  • Incentivize agroforestry, cover crops, and conservation tillage; promote circular bio‑economy (manures, crop residues, biochar where viable).
  • Build market pull for nutritious crops (legumes, biofortified staples) via school feeding, public procurement, and standards.
• Track 2 (DRC, Somalia, South Sudan, Burundi).
  • Mainstream agriculture in peacebuilding/DDR and returnee packages; start with feeder roads, community storage, and local input/output markets.
  • Provide starter kits (quality seed, tools), CSA micro‑infrastructure (rainwater harvesting, seed banks), and cash‑plus programs to rebuild assets.
  • Clarify tenure for IDPs/returnees to reduce conflict and enable investment.

For the EAC Secretariat

• Differentiated Regional Framework. Codify track‑specific strategies and investment priorities; align with CAADP and SDG commitments.
• Policy Harmonization & Learning. Harmonize seed, fertilizer, and SPS standards; create formal peer‑learning platforms and a regional SLM facility to co‑finance cross‑border watersheds.
• Data & Monitoring. Build a Regional Soil & Food Security Observatory aggregating national systems (e.g., RwaSIS) for decision support and advocacy.

For International Partners (World Bank, FAO, CGIAR, Bilaterals)

• Sustain & Adapt Long‑Term Finance. Expand flexible, shock‑responsive programs (e.g., FSRP), enabling operations in both stable and fragile contexts.
• Scale Accessible Solutions. Invest in low‑cost agroecology and gender‑inclusive digital advisory; support last‑mile devices/connectivity and local language content; promote open data standards.
• Foundational Data Infrastructure. Finance national soil information systems, routine soil surveillance, and labs; support fertilizer blend development informed by soil/leaf analysis.

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Acronyms

• ASAL — Arid and Semi‑Arid Lands
• CAADP — Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme
• CSA — Climate‑Smart Agriculture
• DRC — Democratic Republic of Congo
• EAC — East African Community
• FAO — Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
• FFS — Farmer Field School
• FSRP — Food Systems Resilience Program
• GAM — Global Acute Malnutrition
• ICRAF — World Agroforestry Centre
• ICT — Information and Communication Technology
• IFPRI — International Food Policy Research Institute
• IITA — International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
• IPC — Integrated Food Security Phase Classification
• ISFM — Integrated Soil Fertility Management
• SLM — Sustainable Land Management
• SPS — Sanitary and Phytosanitary (standards)
• SSA — Sub‑Saharan Africa
• SWC — Soil and Water Conservation

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Concluding Note

The EAC’s soil crisis is solvable. Science‑proven practices exist; digital delivery channels are maturing; and policy frameworks are increasingly sophisticated. The imperative now is execution at scale, calibrated to the realities of stability and fragility across the Community. With soils restored and safeguarded, East Africa can secure its food future—and with it, the foundations of shared prosperity and peace.