Pan-Regionally Adapted Food Crop for East, Central, and Southern Africa

🌾 Staple Crops Grown Across Africa 🌍

From east to west, north to south, these crops form the backbone of Africa’s food systems and are cultivated widely across the continent:

✅ Maize
✅ Cassava
✅ Sorghum
✅ Millet
✅ Sweet Potato
✅ Common Bean

These staples feed millions and drive livelihoods, trade, and resilience in African agriculture. Read on, From Kilimokwanza.org Team

I. Introduction

A. Defining the Challenge: The Quest for a Pan-Regional Staple Crop

The identification of a food crop exhibiting consistent and robust performance across the diverse and extensive agroecological landscapes of East, Central, and Southern Africa presents a formidable challenge, yet holds profound implications for regional food security. Such a crop would need to demonstrate remarkable resilience to a wide array of environmental conditions, including varying rainfall patterns, temperature extremes, diverse soil types, and fluctuating altitudes. The inherent agroecological heterogeneity across these vast sub-continental regions suggests that a crop performing “equally good” everywhere is an ambitious goal; rather, the search is more likely to identify a crop characterized by broad adaptability and resilience to common stressors. The successful identification and promotion of such a staple could significantly influence regional agricultural policies, guide investments in crop research and development, and foster more robust cross-border agricultural trade strategies, ultimately contributing to enhanced food sovereignty and economic stability.

B. Scope and Regional Definitions

This report delineates the geographical boundaries of East, Central, and Southern Africa primarily based on United Nations (UN) and African Union (AU) regional classifications. These classifications provide a structured framework for analyzing crop suitability across a defined set of countries.

• East Africa: As defined by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the African Union, this region includes countries such as Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The AU definition also encompasses Mauritius and Sudan.¹
• Central Africa: According to the UN Subregion definition and AU/Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) classifications, this region comprises Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), Chad, Congo Republic – Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé & Principe. The AU also includes Burundi in its Central Africa grouping.²
• Southern Africa: The UN Subregion and Southern African Development Community (SADC)/AU classifications include Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The AU definition also lists Malawi as part of Southern Africa.³

It is important to note the overlapping membership of certain countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, which appears in definitions for both East and Central Africa. This geographical and agroecological overlap underscores the interconnectedness of these regions; a crop thriving in the DRC’s varied zones, for instance, might inherently possess characteristics favorable for wider application. Furthermore, the existing political and economic groupings like the East African Community (EAC), ECCAS, and SADC often drive agricultural policies and research initiatives.³ A crop demonstrating broad suitability across these blocs could benefit from harmonized regional strategies, amplifying its impact on food security.

Table 1: Country Composition of East, Central, and Southern Africa (based on UN/AU classifications)

Region	Countries (Illustrative, based on UN/AU sources)	Primary Sources
East Africa	Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda	1
Central Africa	Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo Republic – Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, São Tomé & Principe	2
Southern Africa	Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe	3

This table provides a foundational reference for the geographical scope, ensuring clarity in the subsequent analysis of agroecological conditions and crop performance.

II. Agroecological Profiles of Target Regions

The target regions of East, Central, and Southern Africa encompass a vast spectrum of agroecological conditions. Understanding these profiles is critical to identifying a broadly adaptable food crop.

A. East Africa: A Mosaic of Highlands, Valleys, and Coastal Plains

East Africa is characterized by extreme agroecological diversity. Rainfall patterns vary significantly, with some areas experiencing bimodal rainfall (e.g., Kenya, with long rains from March-May and short rains from October-December) and others unimodal.⁷ Annual rainfall amounts range from less than 500 mm in arid zones to over 1200 mm, and even exceeding 2000 mm in humid highland areas.⁷ Temperatures are heavily influenced by altitude, with cool highlands averaging around 15°C and coastal areas reaching 29°C or higher; a general trend of increasing temperatures is projected for the region.⁷

The soils of East Africa are predominantly Ferralsols, Leptosols, Vertisols, Lixisols, Acrisols, and Luvisols.¹⁰ Many African soils, including those in East Africa, are characterized by low inherent nutrient levels, low organic matter content, and poor water-holding capacity, although fertile areas exist, particularly in volcanic highlands and alluvial plains.⁹ Soil degradation, including erosion and nutrient depletion, and soil acidity are significant challenges, with over 40% of East Africa’s soils considered degraded. In Kenya, for example, 63% of arable land is affected by acidity and 80% by phosphorus deficiency.¹⁰ The topography ranges from coastal lowlands at sea level to extensive highlands and volcanic peaks exceeding 3000-5000m (e.g., Mount Kilimanjaro, Kenyan Highlands).⁷ Consequently, dominant Agroecological Zones (AEZs) include warm arid and semi-arid tropics, sub-humid to humid warm tropics, and cool arid to humid conditions in high-altitude regions.⁷ Tanzania’s classification into seven distinct AEZs, each with unique climate, soil, and cropping systems, exemplifies this regional diversity.⁹ This extreme altitudinal and rainfall gradient creates highly localized microclimates, making a “one-size-fits-all” crop particularly challenging. The prevalence of soil degradation also means that crops tolerant of low fertility and acidity, or those that can be integrated into soil health improvement strategies, will have a distinct advantage for sustainable production.

B. Central Africa: The Humid Tropics and Savannah Transitions

Central Africa is largely dominated by a humid equatorial climate, particularly in the Congo Basin, which receives over 2000 mm of rainfall annually.¹³ This transitions to Sahelo-Sudanian or semi-arid conditions in the northern parts of countries like Chad and CAR, with rainfall around 800 mm.¹⁴ Average temperatures in the humid zones are consistently high, around 25°C, with minimal seasonal fluctuation.¹⁵

The soils in the humid regions are predominantly deeply weathered, nutrient-poor, and acidic Oxisols and Ultisols, shaped by high precipitation and warm temperatures leading to intense leaching.¹⁷ Alfisols, which are relatively more fertile but still prone to leaching, are found in the less humid savannah transition zones.¹⁷ Overall, many soils in Central Africa share the characteristic poor fertility common to ancient African landmasses.¹³ The topography includes vast basins like the Congo Basin, extensive plateaus, and some mountain ranges, generally at lower altitudes compared to the East African highlands.¹⁶ Dominant AEZs are the humid forest, semi-arid tropics, and farming systems are often forest-based, root crop systems, or cereal-root crop systems.¹⁴ The high rainfall and humidity, while supporting significant biomass, also create conditions favorable for fungal diseases and promote rapid nutrient leaching from the soil, posing challenges for many cereal crops but potentially favoring root and tuber crops adapted to such conditions. Furthermore, political instability and underdeveloped infrastructure in some parts of Central Africa ¹⁴ may favor low-input, resilient crops that can endure periods of neglect or disrupted market access, adding a socio-economic dimension to their suitability.

C. Southern Africa: From Deserts to Subtropical Zones

Southern Africa exhibits extreme climatic and topographical diversity. Climates range from arid and semi-arid (e.g., Kalahari and Namib deserts) to sub-humid and temperate zones.¹⁹ Rainfall is predominantly a summer phenomenon (October to February) and generally decreases from east to west, with annual averages around 464 mm for South Africa, significantly below the global average.²¹ The Western Cape province of South Africa is an exception, with a Mediterranean climate characterized by winter rainfall.²¹ Droughts are a recurrent feature across much of the region.²² Temperature regimes vary considerably, with summer averages ranging from 15°C to 36°C and winter temperatures from -2°C to 26°C, depending on location and altitude.²¹

Soil types are diverse, including extensive sandy soils (Arenosols), shallow soils over rock (Leptosols), heavy clay soils (Vertisols), and more fertile Luvisols and Nitisols in specific areas.¹⁹ Low soil organic matter content and susceptibility to wind and water erosion are common problems.¹⁹ Local farmers often use soil color and texture as indicators of fertility and suitability for different crops.²⁶ The region’s topography is dominated by a large central plateau (the Highveld, typically 900-1600m, but reaching over 2000m), surrounded by a dramatic escarpment (e.g., the Drakensberg mountains, exceeding 3000m), coastal plains (the Lowveld), and the Karoo semi-desert.²⁸ Dominant AEZs include the widespread tropical warm semi-arid (dry savanna) zone, semi-arid to sub-humid tropical highlands, and arid zones.²⁰ The prevalence of drought-prone semi-arid zones strongly favors drought-tolerant crops. The dual rainfall system (summer vs. winter rainfall areas) in the southern tip, particularly in South Africa, implies that a single crop is unlikely to be optimally suited to all agricultural areas of the entire Southern African region without varied planting seasons or significant reliance on irrigation.

D. Synthesis: Overlapping and Divergent Agroecological Realities

Across East, Central, and Southern Africa, common challenges for agriculture include the prevalence of inherently low-fertility soils and erratic or insufficient rainfall in many areas.⁷ Increasing temperature trends and climate variability are also shared concerns.⁷ However, significant divergences exist, such as the dominance of the humid tropics in much of Central Africa versus the extensive arid and semi-arid zones in Southern and parts of East Africa, and the contrast between the high-altitude agricultural systems of East Africa and the generally lower-lying basins and plateaus of Central Africa.

Table 2: Comparative Summary of Key Agroecological Characteristics for East, Central, and Southern Africa

Agroecological Parameter	East Africa	Central Africa	Southern Africa
Dominant Rainfall Pattern	Bimodal/Unimodal; variable 7	Predominantly unimodal (long rainy season in humid south, shorter in north) 15	Predominantly summer rainfall; winter in SW Cape; variable, often low 21
Avg. Annual Rainfall Range (mm)	<500 to >2000 7	~800 (north) to >2000 (south) 13	<200 (arid west) to >1000 (eastern escarpment); Avg. SA ~464 21
Avg. Temperature Range (°C)	15 (highlands) to >29 (coastal/lowlands); increasing trend 7	~25 (humid zones) with little seasonal variation; hotter in northern semi-arid 15	Wide range: Summer 15-36; Winter -2-26; varies by altitude/latitude 21
Predominant Soil Types/Issues	Ferralsols, Leptosols, Vertisols etc.; low fertility, acidity, degradation common 10	Oxisols, Ultisols (acidic, leached in humid zones); Alfisols (savannah); generally low fertility 13	Arenosols, Leptosols, Vertisols etc.; low OM, erosion risk; salinity in some arid areas 19
Altitude Range (m)	Sea level to >5000 (volcanic peaks); extensive highlands >1500 9	Mainly lowlands & plateaus (<1000m), Congo Basin; some highlands 16	Coastal plains to high plateau (900-2000m+), Great Escarpment (>3000m) 28
Key Climatic Challenges	Droughts, erratic rains, floods, rising temperatures, AEZ shifts 7	High humidity (disease pressure), flooding in south; drought in north; rising temperatures 14	Widespread drought, water scarcity, heat stress, variable rainfall, frost in highveld/Karoo 21

This comparative summary highlights that any crop aiming for “equally good” performance must possess a wide tolerance to varied moisture regimes, temperature fluctuations, and soil conditions, particularly low fertility and potential drought. Climate change projections, indicating increased temperatures and more extreme weather events ⁷, further emphasize that future suitability will increasingly depend on a crop’s inherent resilience and adaptability. Crops currently thriving at the edge of their tolerance in certain zones may become unsuitable, favoring those with greater plasticity.

III. Analysis of Candidate Food Crops

The primary candidate crops for assessment are maize, cassava, sorghum, millet, sweet potato, and common bean, based on their prevalence as staples in the study regions.³²

Table 3: Optimal and Tolerable Growing Conditions for Candidate Crops

Crop	Optimal Temp Range (°C)	Tolerable Temp Range (°C)	Optimal Rainfall (mm)	Tolerable Rainfall (mm)	Preferred Soil Type(s)	Soil pH Tolerance	Altitude Range (m)	Key Resilience Traits	Major Limitations
Maize	18-32 41	>15 (mean daily) 41	500-800 41	Variable, needs good distribution	Well-drained loams, humus-rich 41	5.5-7.5	Wide, temperate to tropic 41	Some hybrid drought tolerance 43	Drought, waterlogging, low N, frost 33
Cassava	25-29 45	10-~35 45	1000-1500 45	500-5000 45	Well-drained, light-textured, deep soils 45	4.0-8.0 46	0-1800 45	Drought, low soil fertility, acid soils 45	Waterlogging, extreme cold/frost, some diseases (CMD, CBSD) 45
Sorghum	>25 50	~15-45 50	450-650 50	300-1000+	Light-medium textured, well-drained 50	5.0-8.5 52	0-2700 (variety dep.) 52	Drought, heat, poor soils, some salinity 50	Bird damage, some pests, cool temps at flowering 33
Millet (Pearl)	~25-35	Warm season 56	300-500 57	<200-700+ 57	Sandy, poor soils 56	Acid to neutral	Wide, up to ~2400 59	Extreme drought, heat, poor soils 56	Specific adaptations vary by millet type; low yield potential in some traditional systems
Sweet Potato	21-26 60	15-33 61	Needs moisture	Tolerates dry spells	Well-drained loams, sandy loams 60	5.5-6.5 60	Wide	Marginal soils, some drought tolerance, low input 60	Waterlogging, alkaline soils, weevils 60
Common Bean	15-23 64	10-27 65	300-500 65	Needs good distribution	Friable, deep loams, well-drained 65	5.5-7.0 65	Up to 3000 64	Some N-fixation, short maturity 67	Drought, heat, excessive rain, low P, pests/diseases 66

A. Maize (Zea mays)

Maize is a dominant staple food across East and Southern Africa and is also cultivated in Central Africa.³² It thrives in mean daily temperatures above 15°C, with an optimal range of 18-32°C, and requires between 500 and 800 mm of well-distributed rainfall for medium-maturity varieties.⁴¹ Maize prefers well-aerated, well-drained loamy soils rich in humus and is sensitive to waterlogging, drought (especially at critical growth stages like flowering), and low nitrogen availability.⁴¹ While grown in diverse AEZs, including all zones in Ghana ⁶⁹, its performance is highly dependent on favorable rainfall and soil fertility.³³ The crop’s significant water and nutrient requirements make it less inherently suited to consistently perform “equally good” across the extensive arid, semi-arid, and low-fertility areas prevalent in the three target regions without substantial irrigation or soil amendment. Although breeding efforts are developing more drought-resistant and nitrogen-efficient varieties ⁴³, its baseline adaptability to widespread environmental stresses is lower than that of some other traditional staples.

B. Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

Cassava is a major staple crop in all three regions, providing a primary calorie source for millions.³² It is renowned for its wide adaptability, particularly its tolerance to drought and poor soil conditions [³³⁸⁷]. Cassava grows optimally at temperatures between 25-29°C and can tolerate rainfall from as low as 500 mm to as high as 5000 mm, though 1000-1500 mm well-distributed is best.⁴⁵ It performs well on a wide range of soils, including acidic, low-fertility Ultisols and Oxisols common in the humid tropics, but requires well-drained conditions and does not tolerate waterlogging or high salinity.⁴⁵ It can be cultivated from sea level up to about 1800 meters.⁴⁵ Its ability to be left in the ground and harvested as needed provides food security during periods of stress.⁴⁹ This exceptional resilience to common abiotic stresses makes cassava a very strong candidate. Average yields in Africa (around 8.9 t/ha) are below the global average and far below its potential (up to 75-90 t/ha with improved varieties and management) [³³⁸⁷, ⁴⁹], suggesting significant scope for improvement. Key limitations are susceptibility to diseases like Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD), though resistant varieties are increasingly available ⁴⁸, and poor growth in very cold highland areas.⁴⁷

C. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

Sorghum is a critical cereal in the drier regions of East and Southern Africa, and parts of Central Africa.³² It is exceptionally drought-resistant and heat-tolerant, with optimal temperatures above 25°C and an ability to withstand temperatures up to 40-45°C during grain development.⁵⁰ It can produce with 450-650 mm of rainfall and thrives in conditions unsuitable for maize.⁵⁰ Sorghum adapts to a variety of soils, including light to medium textures, and demonstrates better tolerance to poor soils and salinity than many other cereals.⁵⁰ While typically grown at altitudes up to 1000m ⁵², some varieties in Ethiopia are adapted to elevations as high as 2700m ⁵³, indicating significant genetic diversity for altitudinal adaptation. Its strong resilience to drought and heat, coupled with adaptability to marginal soils, makes sorghum a prime candidate for consistent performance across the challenging AEZs common to all three regions. Limitations include susceptibility to bird damage and certain pests ³³, and sensitivity to cool temperatures during flowering for some varieties.⁵⁰

D. Millet (various species, primarily Pearl and Finger Millet)

Millets, as a group, are staple cereals in arid and semi-arid regions, with pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) being particularly prominent in the Sahel and other drylands, and finger millet (Eleusine coracana) in cooler, higher-altitude regions of Africa, including East Africa.³³ Pearl millet is one of the most drought-tolerant of all domesticated cereals, capable of producing with minimal rainfall (<200-500 mm) and on poor, sandy soils.⁵⁶ Finger millet is adapted to cooler, wetter uplands ⁵⁷, often grown in rotation or intercropped.⁷² The diverse adaptations within the millet group suggest that while no single millet species might perform “equally good” across all environments from hot, arid plains to cool, moist highlands, a portfolio of different millet types could collectively cover a vast range of AEZs. Their status as somewhat “neglected” or “orphan crops” ⁷³ means their full potential may be untapped, with significant scope for improvement through research and promotion.⁷³

E. Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)

Sweet potato is an important root crop, particularly in East Africa (Uganda is a major producer), and its cultivation is expanding rapidly across Sub-Saharan Africa.³² It grows best in moderately warm climates (21-26°C optimal) and requires moist soils for establishment and growth, though it can tolerate some dry spells.⁶⁰ It prefers light-textured, well-drained loamy soils with a pH of 5.5-6.5 and is sensitive to waterlogging and highly alkaline or brackish conditions.⁶⁰ Sweet potato is noted for requiring fewer inputs and less labor than many other staples and can produce well on marginal lands.⁶² It also boasts high edible energy production per hectare per day.⁶⁰ Its adaptability has been demonstrated across various AEZs, for example in Ghana.⁷⁷ The crop’s rapid expansion suggests farmer recognition of its utility and resilience.⁶² Key challenges include susceptibility to sweet potato weevils and viruses, though breeding efforts are addressing these.⁶² Its sensitivity to waterlogging might be a constraint in very humid, poorly drained areas.

F. Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Common bean is a vital pulse crop, especially in East Africa, valued for its protein content and role in smallholder farming systems due to nitrogen fixation and short maturity periods.³² It performs best at moderate temperatures (15-23°C) and requires 300-500 mm of well-distributed rainfall, being sensitive to extremes of heat, drought, and excessive moisture.⁶⁴ Preferred soils are friable, deep, and well-drained, with a pH of 5.5-7.0.⁶⁵ While grown in sub-humid and semi-arid zones and at altitudes up to 3000m ⁶⁴, its relatively narrow optimal environmental range makes it less likely to perform “equally good” across the full spectrum of AEZs in the target regions compared to more robust crops like cassava or sorghum. Significant breeding efforts are underway to enhance tolerance to drought, heat, and low soil phosphorus ⁶⁷, indicating current limitations in many African environments.

IV. Comparative Assessment for “Equally Good” Performance

Evaluating which crop performs “equally good” across East, Central, and Southern Africa requires a nuanced understanding of this criterion. It implies broad agroecological adaptability, resilience to common stresses prevalent in these regions (such as drought and low soil fertility), consistent and viable yield potential across diverse conditions, and a reliable contribution to food security. No single crop will perform identically or optimally in every micro-environment across such vast and varied territories.

A. Cross-Regional Suitability Analysis

Maize: While a critical staple, its high demand for water and nutrients restricts its “equally good” performance primarily to sub-humid and humid zones with fertile soils or where irrigation and fertilizers are available. In the extensive arid, semi-arid, and low-fertility areas of East and Southern Africa, and even in parts of Central Africa, its rainfed performance is often unreliable and significantly lower than its potential.³³ Land productivity data shows that regions heavily reliant on maize without adequate inputs often struggle with consistent output.³⁶

Cassava: Demonstrates remarkable suitability across a wide range of AEZs. In East Africa, it is cultivated from coastal lowlands to mid-altitudes, performing in semi-arid to sub-humid conditions and tolerating poor soils ¹⁰, though its cultivation is limited by very cold highlands.⁴⁷ In Central Africa, it is highly suited to the humid, hot equatorial zones and acidic, leached soils of the Congo Basin.¹⁷ In Southern Africa, it is suitable for warmer, lower-altitude areas, including parts of Mozambique, South Africa’s lowveld provinces, and is valued for its drought tolerance in semi-arid zones [³³⁸⁷]. Its main limitations are extreme cold and susceptibility to specific diseases if non-resistant varieties are used. The average value of production per hectare for staple crop systems that include cassava in these regions, while modest, often reflects its ability to provide some yield where other crops might fail entirely.³⁶

Sorghum: Exhibits excellent suitability for the arid and semi-arid AEZs that are prevalent in large parts of East and Southern Africa, and the northern Sahelian fringes of Central Africa.³³ Its high tolerance for drought, heat, and poor or even somewhat saline soils gives it a distinct advantage.⁵⁰ The existence of varieties adapted to higher altitudes (up to 2700m in Ethiopia ⁵³) broadens its potential reach into some highland areas. While yields can be low under traditional systems ⁷¹, its resilience ensures some level of production in environments where maize would likely fail.

Millet (Pearl Millet as primary example for broad aridity tolerance): Pearl millet, in particular, is exceptionally well-suited to the driest and hottest agricultural zones, often outperforming sorghum under extreme aridity and on very poor sandy soils.⁵⁶ It is a cornerstone of food security in the Sahelian parts of Central and East Africa and in similarly challenging zones in Southern Africa. However, other millets like finger millet have different adaptations (cooler, moister highlands ⁵⁷), meaning no single millet species is universally adapted across all AEZs of the three regions.

Sweet Potato: Shows good adaptability to a range of conditions, particularly marginal lands with low inputs, across East, Central, and Southern Africa.⁶² Its ability to produce high edible energy per unit area/time is a significant advantage.⁶⁰ It is grown in diverse AEZs from coastal savanna to forest zones.⁷⁷ Its primary limitations are intolerance to waterlogging (a concern in very humid/poorly drained areas of Central Africa or valley bottoms) and very alkaline soils.⁶⁰

Common Bean: Its requirement for moderate temperatures and well-distributed (but not excessive) rainfall, along with sensitivity to heat and drought, limits its suitability primarily to mid to high-altitude zones with adequate moisture in East and parts of Southern Africa.⁶⁴ It is less suited to the hot, arid lowlands or the very humid tropics without specific varietal adaptations and careful management.

The overall modest average land productivity values for staple crops across these regions (Eastern $480/ha, Middle $536/ha, Southern $398/ha ³⁶) suggest that achieving high and uniform productivity everywhere with current systems and crop mixes is challenging. A crop that reliably contributes to these averages across a wide array of conditions, even if not always the top performer in optimal niches, demonstrates broad suitability.

B. Identifying the Most Promising Candidate(s) for “Equally Good” Performance

Based on the cross-regional suitability analysis, cassava and sorghum emerge as the strongest candidates for demonstrating “equally good” performance across the diverse agroecological zones of East, Central, and Southern Africa.

• Cassava is exceptionally strong due to its unparalleled drought tolerance, its capacity to yield on nutrient-poor and acidic soils prevalent in all three regions, its wide temperature tolerance (excluding extreme cold at high altitudes), and its critical role as a food security buffer that can be harvested flexibly [³³⁸⁷]. Its vegetative propagation is also an advantage for resource-constrained smallholders.⁴⁹
• Sorghum is also a prime candidate because of its profound drought and heat tolerance, its adaptability to a wide range of soil types including marginal and slightly saline ones, and the existence of varieties suited to diverse altitudes, allowing it to be cultivated from hot lowlands to some cooler highlands.⁵⁰

Sweet potato follows as a strong contender due to its tolerance of marginal conditions, high nutritional output per unit area, relatively low input requirements, and observed rapid expansion in cultivation, indicating farmer acceptance of its broad utility.⁶⁰

These crops often form the backbone of resilience in diverse farming systems, prioritizing reliable baseline performance over peak yield achieved only under ideal conditions. Their ability to produce some yield even in adverse years or on degraded land is critical for food security.⁴⁹ The extensive work by CGIAR centers like IITA, ICRISAT, and CIP in developing improved varieties of these crops further enhances their “goodness” by boosting yield potential, stress tolerance, and disease resistance, making them even better suited for wide adoption across the regions.⁷¹

C. Limitations, Nuances, and Defining “Equally Good”

It is crucial to reiterate that “equally good” does not mean identical optimal performance in every specific location. Rather, it signifies:

• Broad Agroecological Niche: The capacity to grow and provide viable yields across a wide spectrum of the AEZs found within East, Central, and Southern Africa.
• Resilience to Common Stresses: Demonstrable tolerance to widespread challenges such as drought, heat, and low soil fertility.
• Yield Stability: The ability to produce consistent, even if not always maximal, yields across these varied and often stressful conditions.
• Food Security Contribution: A reliable and significant contribution to food availability, particularly for vulnerable populations.

There are inherent trade-offs; for example, cassava is highly resilient but generally lower in protein than cereals or legumes. Maize can be highly productive but is heavily reliant on favorable conditions or inputs. The interpretation of “equally good” must also extend beyond purely agronomic traits to consider socio-economic factors. Farmer preferences, local dietary habits, market demand, labor availability, and processing potential significantly influence a crop’s practical utility and adoption.⁸¹ A crop might be agronomically well-suited but fail to gain traction if it doesn’t align with these local realities.

Furthermore, the dynamic nature of AEZs due to climate change, with projections of increasing temperatures and more erratic rainfall ⁷, means that a crop’s long-term “equally good” performance will increasingly hinge on its inherent genetic diversity and capacity to adapt to future environmental shifts. Crops like sorghum and millet, with vast native genetic diversity ⁵³, and cassava and sweet potato, with active breeding programs focused on resilience ⁴⁸, are arguably better positioned for sustained broad suitability.

Table 4: Crop Suitability and Performance Matrix across East, Central, and Southern African Agroecological Zones (Illustrative Summary)

Crop	Region	Humid Forest/Tropics	Sub-Humid Savanna/Tropics	Semi-Arid Zones	Arid Zones	Highland Zones (>1500m)	Overall Resilience to Common Regional Stresses (Drought, Low Fertility, Heat)
Maize	East	Medium	High (good conditions)	Low-Medium (risk)	Low (irrigation needed)	Medium (adapted var.)	Low to Medium
	Central	Medium (disease risk)	Medium-High	Low-Medium	Low	Medium (limited area)
	Southern	Medium (limited area)	High (good conditions)	Low-Medium (risk)	Low (irrigation needed)	Medium (Highveld, risk)
Cassava	East	High	High	High	Medium-High	Medium (cold sensitive)	Very High
	Central	Very High	High	High	Medium	Medium (lower highlands)
	Southern	High (coastal)	High	High	Medium-High	Low (cold sensitive)
Sorghum	East	Low-Medium	Medium-High	Very High	High	Medium (adapted var.)	Very High
	Central	Low	Medium	High (northern parts)	Medium-High	Low-Medium
	Southern	Low-Medium	Medium-High	Very High	High	Medium (adapted var.)
Millet (Pearl)	East	Low	Medium	Very High	Very High	Low (not adapted)	Highest (for drought/heat)
	Central	Low	Low-Medium	High (northern parts)	High	Low (not adapted)
	Southern	Low	Medium	Very High	Very High	Low (not adapted)
Sweet Potato	East	High	High	Medium-High	Medium	High (adapted var.)	High
	Central	High (drainage key)	High	Medium	Low-Medium	Medium
	Southern	Medium-High	High	Medium	Low-Medium	Medium

(Note: This table provides a generalized qualitative assessment. Performance of specific varieties can vary significantly.)

V. Factors Influencing Crop Performance Beyond Inherent Traits

The inherent genetic potential of a crop is only one part of the equation determining its performance. Several external factors significantly modulate how well a crop yields and persists in any given environment.

A. Impact of Farming Systems and Management Practices

The context of the farming system and the specific management practices employed are critical. Low-input farming systems are widespread across the regions [¹⁰⁸⁷], and under such conditions, even a well-adapted crop may not reach its full potential. Conversely, appropriate management can enhance the performance of moderately adapted varieties. For instance, cassava can yield 8-10 tonnes/hectare with virtually no inputs, but this can be increased several-fold with improved varieties and agronomic practices such as appropriate tillage, timely planting, weed control, and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) [³³⁸⁷, ⁸⁸]. Similarly, maize yields in Africa are often constrained by low adoption of ISFM, which includes the use of organic matter, appropriate fertilizer application, and good conservation practices.⁸³ Therefore, a crop’s perceived “goodness” is an outcome of the interaction between its genetics, the environment, and the management it receives (GxExM). Promoting a broadly adapted crop must invariably be accompanied by the dissemination of best-fit, sustainable management practices tailored to local conditions.

B. Role of Climate Variability and Change on Crop Suitability

Climate change and increasing climate variability pose significant and growing threats to agricultural production across East, Central, and Southern Africa. Projections indicate rising temperatures, more frequent and intense extreme weather events (droughts, floods), and shifts in rainfall patterns.⁷ These changes are already impacting crop yields [³³⁸²] and are expected to alter the boundaries of AEZs, potentially rendering some current cropping systems unviable.⁷ For example, in East Africa, while overall precipitation trends are uncertain, an increase in the intensity of both dry and wet periods is likely, and yields of key staples like maize show high uncertainty.⁷ This climatic “stress test” means that crops inherently resilient to current climatic stresses, such as the drought and heat tolerance of sorghum and cassava, or the ability of sweet potato to yield in marginal conditions, are better pre-adapted to perform more consistently (“equally good”) under future, more challenging climates. These crops align well with the principles of climate-smart agriculture.¹⁴

C. Disease and Pest Dynamics

The prevalence of diseases and pests can severely undermine the performance of even climatically well-suited crops. Transboundary pests and diseases can cause widespread devastation, negating a crop’s inherent adaptability. For example, Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD) have historically caused significant yield losses in cassava across Africa.⁴⁸ Sorghum can be susceptible to bird damage, and millets and other crops face their own spectrum of biotic threats.³³ The “health” component of a crop is therefore integral to its “equally good” performance. A climatically adapted variety that consistently succumbs to prevalent diseases is not a reliable option for farmers. This underscores the critical importance of ongoing breeding programs focused on developing and disseminating disease- and pest-resistant varieties ⁴⁸, alongside the promotion of integrated pest and disease management (IPM) strategies within local farming systems.

VI. Conclusion and Recommendations

A. Summary of Findings: The Most Broadly Adapted Food Crop(s)

The comprehensive analysis of agroecological conditions across East, Central, and Southern Africa, juxtaposed with the agronomic requirements and resilience traits of candidate staple crops, indicates that cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) emerge as the food crops that most closely meet the criterion of performing “equally good” across these diverse regions. This assessment is based on their broad agroecological niche, notable resilience to widespread stresses such as drought, heat, and low soil fertility, and their potential for stable, viable yields under such conditions, thereby making significant contributions to food security.

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) also demonstrates considerable adaptability and resilience, particularly in marginal conditions and with low inputs, making it a strong secondary candidate.

Other crops, while vital in specific contexts, exhibit more limitations for pan-regional “equally good” performance:

• Maize, despite its importance, is often constrained by its higher water and nutrient demands, making its performance less consistent in drier and less fertile zones without significant inputs.
• Millets, while encompassing highly resilient species like pearl millet (for extreme drought) and finger millet (for cooler highlands), do not offer a single species solution for all environments; however, a portfolio of different millet types collectively offers broad coverage.
• Common bean has a relatively narrower optimal environmental range, particularly concerning temperature and moisture extremes, limiting its universal applicability.

It is important to recognize that no single crop will achieve identical, peak performance in every micro-environment. The term “equally good” is interpreted as a reliable baseline productivity and resilience across the majority of the diverse and often challenging agroecological zones encountered. The final selection may indeed favor a small portfolio of these highly resilient crops, acknowledging that true singular dominance is unlikely and that diversified systems are inherently more robust.

B. Strategic Recommendations for Crop Selection and Agricultural Development

1. Prioritize Investment in Resilient Staples: National and regional agricultural strategies should significantly increase investment in the research, development, dissemination, and promotion of cassava, sorghum, and sweet potato. This includes breeding for enhanced yield, nutritional quality, and further stress/disease tolerance.
2. Promote Context-Specific Diversification: While prioritizing these broadly adapted staples, agricultural development programs must continue to promote crop diversification. This includes integrating specific millet types suited to particular niches (e.g., pearl millet in arid zones, finger millet in highlands) and legumes like common bean where conditions are favorable, to enhance overall farming system resilience, improve soil health, and provide diverse nutritional outcomes.
3. Strengthen Localized Adaptation and Seed Systems: Investment is crucial for breeding programs that develop varieties of these key crops specifically adapted to the diverse local AEZs within East, Central, and Southern Africa.⁸³ Concurrently, robust and accessible seed systems are essential to ensure that smallholder farmers can obtain quality planting material of these improved, locally adapted varieties.⁶²
4. Enhance Sustainable Agronomic Practices: The promotion of the most adaptable crops must be coupled with widespread agricultural extension efforts focused on improved, sustainable agronomic practices. This includes integrated soil fertility management (ISFM), water conservation techniques, appropriate tillage, timely planting and weeding, and integrated pest and disease management (IPM) tailored to the selected crops and local conditions to help them achieve their yield potential.
5. Develop Supportive Value Chains: For the prioritized crops (cassava, sorghum, sweet potato), concerted efforts are needed to develop and strengthen post-harvest handling, processing, marketing, and value addition opportunities [³³⁸⁷]. This will not only improve farmer incomes but also enhance consumer access and create new market demands, thereby incentivizing production.

C. Areas for Further Research

To build upon these findings and support ongoing agricultural development, further research is recommended in several areas:

1. Comparative Multi-Locational Trials: Conduct more detailed and systematic comparative performance trials of specific, promising varieties of cassava, sorghum, and sweet potato across a wider and more finely granulated matrix of AEZs spanning all three regions.
2. Socio-Economic and Adoption Studies: Investigate the socio-economic factors, including farmer preferences, gender dynamics, market access, and policy environments, that influence the adoption and sustained use of these resilient crops.
3. Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Monitoring: Continue to monitor the impacts of climate change on crop suitability and AEZ shifts, and research adaptive management strategies to ensure long-term resilience of the selected cropping systems.
4. Nutritional Profiling and Biofortification: Further research into the nutritional profiles of diverse varieties of these staples and continued efforts in biofortification (e.g., vitamin A cassava and sweet potato) to maximize their contribution to public health.
5. Integrated Systems Research: Explore optimal configurations of intercropping and rotation systems involving these resilient staples with other crops (legumes, other cereals, vegetables) to maximize overall farm productivity, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

The dynamic nature of African agriculture, influenced by climate change, population growth, and evolving socio-economic landscapes, necessitates a continuous, adaptive research and development agenda. By focusing on inherently resilient and broadly adaptable crops, coupled with supportive policies and effective value chains, significant strides can be made towards enhancing food and nutrition security across East, Central, and Southern Africa.

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