Kilimokwanza.org

Section 1: Executive Summary

Kenya faces a significant economic and food security challenge encapsulated in its “Potato Paradox”: a nation with a burgeoning consumer demand for potatoes, particularly for processed products like french fries and crisps, that is chronically unable to meet this demand with its domestic supply. This report presents a comprehensive analysis of this paradox, identifying the systemic failures across the value chain and proposing an integrated, five-pillar strategic framework to transform the sector. The potato is Kenya’s second most important food crop, employing over 3.5 million people and supporting the livelihoods of approximately 800,000 smallholder farmers. Yet, the sector is trapped in a low-input, low-output cycle, characterized by a dysfunctional seed system, a vast on-farm yield gap, crippling post-harvest losses, fragmented markets, and an unsupportive financial and policy environment.

The core of the problem is a foundational breakdown in the seed system. An estimated 95% of farmers rely on recycled, poor-quality seed, leading to the perpetuation of diseases and drastically suppressed yields, which average a mere 7-10 tonnes per hectare against a potential of over 40. This is compounded by the dominance of the ‘Shangi’ variety, which, while popular for the fresh market, is fundamentally unsuitable for processing or long-term storage. The result is not just a shortfall in quantity, but a critical mismatch in quality that forces a growing processing industry to rely on imports.

This report deconstructs the value chain, revealing interconnected bottlenecks at every stage. On the farm, the lack of access to quality inputs and knowledge of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) prevents farmers from realizing their production potential. Post-harvest, losses of up to 40% decimate farmer incomes and create market volatility. Market structures remain largely informal, leaving farmers vulnerable to exploitation and creating inefficiencies that deter large-scale private investment. Finally, a significant credit gap prevents farmers from making the necessary investments to break this cycle.

To address these multifaceted challenges, this report proposes a five-pillar integrated solutions framework designed to be implemented concurrently. This strategic blueprint provides a pathway to transform Kenya’s potato sector into a competitive, commercially oriented industry capable of achieving national food security, generating wealth for millions of smallholders, and displacing costly imports. The five pillars are:

1. Foundational Reform of the Seed System: Overhauling policy to allow for private certification and risk-based imports, while aggressively scaling up Rapid Multiplication Technologies (RMTs) for new, processor-preferred varieties.
2. Intensification of Sustainable Production: Scaling successful training models like the Farmer Field Business School (FFBS) to pair technical skills with business acumen, ensuring farmers have the knowledge and incentives to adopt GAPs.
3. Development of National Post-Harvest Infrastructure: Creating a network of appropriate storage solutions, from zero-energy stores to modern cold rooms, linked to a Warehouse Receipt System to stabilize prices and transform potatoes into a bankable asset.
4. Formalization and Integration of the Value Chain: Strengthening farmer cooperatives and promoting fair contract farming schemes, underpinned by digital platforms like Viazi Soko, to create structured, efficient, and transparent market linkages.
5. Creation of an Enabling Policy and Financial Environment: Ensuring the full enforcement of the Crops (Irish Potato) Regulations, 2019, and launching a dedicated Potato Sector Transformation Fund to de-risk and catalyze private investment across the value chain.

Implementing this framework will create a virtuous cycle: a modernized seed system will provide the high-quality raw material needed by processors, which will in turn drive the adoption of formal contracts, providing farmers with the stable income required to invest in better seeds, inputs, and storage. This is the pathway to solving Kenya’s Potato Paradox and unlocking the immense potential of this vital agricultural subsector.

Section 2: Deconstructing the Paradox: The Supply and Demand Imbalance

The central challenge confronting Kenya’s potato sector is a profound and persistent disconnect between a rapidly modernizing demand landscape and a stagnant, underperforming supply base. This imbalance, the “Potato Paradox,” is not merely a matter of insufficient volume but a complex issue of quality, suitability, and consistency that undermines food security, limits economic growth, and stifles opportunities for millions of smallholder farmers.

The Demand Side: A Growing Appetite

The potato stands as a pillar of Kenya’s food system, second only to maize in national importance.¹ The crop is integral to the livelihoods of a significant portion of the rural population, with approximately 800,000 smallholder farmers engaged in its cultivation and a wider value chain that employs an estimated 3.5 million people.¹ The government has recognized its strategic role in national policy, encouraging diversification towards potatoes as a faster-maturing crop that can bridge food gaps during grain shortages.²

Beyond its role as a staple, the demand for potatoes is being reshaped by powerful demographic and economic trends. Urbanization and the expansion of the middle class have fueled a significant shift in consumer tastes towards convenience and processed foods.² This has created a burgeoning market for products like crisps and, most notably, french fries, driven by the proliferation of fast-food chains and restaurants.¹ This evolving demand profile creates a specific and lucrative market for processing-grade potato varieties, a demand that the domestic market has largely failed to meet. This failure is starkly illustrated by the need for international franchises operating in Kenya to consider importing potatoes to meet their quality standards, a clear signal of a major domestic supply chain failure.²

The Supply Side: A Story of Underperformance

Juxtaposed against this dynamic demand is a supply chain characterized by chronic inefficiency and low productivity. The most telling metric is the national yield gap. Kenyan potato farmers typically achieve yields of between 7 and 10 tonnes per hectare, a figure that pales in comparison to the potential of over 40 tonnes per hectare demonstrated in countries like Egypt and achievable within Kenya itself under optimal conditions.³

While the gross marketed value of potato production has shown growth, rising from approximately KES 201 million in 2018 to KES 681 million in 2023, this increase is deceptive.¹ Analysis indicates that this growth has been primarily driven by the expansion of land under cultivation rather than by improvements in productivity per hectare.³ This model of growth is inherently unsustainable, placing increasing pressure on finite land resources and masking the deep-seated inefficiencies that plague the sector. The vulnerability of this expansionist model was exposed in 2024, when both the total cultivated area and national production registered a decline, suggesting that the limits of this approach may have been reached.¹⁰

The supply-side challenge is further compounded by a lack of varietal diversity. The Kenyan potato landscape is overwhelmingly dominated by a single variety, Shangi, which accounts for an estimated 73% of the total area under potato cultivation.¹¹ While popular among farmers and fresh market consumers for its fast maturity and desirable cooking qualities, Shangi possesses characteristics that make it a significant impediment to the sector’s modernization.¹² Its notoriously short dormancy period, which leads to sprouting within a few weeks of harvest, makes it unsuitable for long-term storage and a poor candidate for processing.⁸

A deeper analysis reveals that the core of the paradox lies not merely in a quantitative shortfall but in a critical qualitative mismatch between what the market demands and what farmers produce. The market is effectively bifurcating into two distinct segments: a traditional fresh market, which is adequately, if inefficiently, served by the Shangi variety, and a modern processing market with highly specific raw material requirements that remain largely unmet by domestic producers. Processors require potatoes with high dry matter, low reducing sugars, and, crucially, a long dormancy period to ensure a year-round supply for their factories. The domestic supply chain, anchored by Shangi, fails on all these counts. Therefore, even a significant increase in the total volume of potatoes produced would not resolve the paradox for the processing industry without a fundamental shift in the type of potato being cultivated. The problem is qualitative and varietal, not just quantitative. This varietal mismatch is the central economic driver of the paradox, creating the vacuum that is currently filled by imports or foregone investment.

Section 3: The Seed System: The Root of the Challenge

The foundational bottleneck preventing the modernization of Kenya’s entire potato value chain is its dysfunctional seed system. This system is caught in a self-perpetuating cycle of low quality, disease proliferation, and limited genetic diversity, which directly suppresses yields and prevents farmers from accessing the improved varieties necessary to meet modern market demands. Addressing the seed system is the primary leverage point for unlocking the sector’s potential.

The Vicious Cycle of Low-Quality Seed

The adoption of certified seed among Kenyan potato farmers is alarmingly low, with estimates indicating that only 2% to 5% of farmers use it.³ The vast majority—over 95%—rely on farmer-saved seed, recycling tubers from their previous harvest or sourcing them from neighbors and informal markets. This practice, while seemingly cost-effective in the short term, is the primary vector for the accumulation and spread of seed-borne diseases, particularly viruses and bacterial wilt. Over successive planting cycles, this leads to genetic degradation and a steady decline in yield potential, trapping farmers in a cycle of low productivity.³

The reasons for this low adoption are multifaceted. Certified seed is often prohibitively expensive for smallholders, who lack access to credit.¹⁴ Furthermore, distribution channels are poorly organized, making certified seed physically inaccessible in many rural areas.¹⁴ A lack of awareness about the benefits of clean seed and the absence of preferred, market-demanded varieties within the formal certification system further discourage adoption.¹⁴

The Dominance and Drawbacks of the Shangi Variety

The informal seed system is overwhelmingly dominated by the Shangi variety, which covers 73% of the potato area.¹¹ Its popularity is driven by traits that are advantageous in a low-input, subsistence-oriented context: it matures quickly and is well-regarded in the fresh consumer market.¹² However, the very characteristics that make Shangi popular in the informal system are significant liabilities for the development of a modern, commercial value chain. Its most critical flaw is its short dormancy period.¹³ Shangi tubers begin to sprout within a few weeks of harvest, making them unsuitable for long-term storage. This forces farmers into immediate post-harvest sales, contributing directly to market gluts, price collapses, and high post-harvest losses, and renders it a poor raw material for the processing industry, which requires a consistent, year-round supply.⁸

Pathways to Modernization: A Multi-pronged Approach

Transforming the seed system requires a coordinated strategy targeting variety development, multiplication technology, and regulatory reform.

New Varieties: The first step is to break the reliance on Shangi by introducing and scaling up a diverse portfolio of improved varieties. These varieties must be high-yielding, resistant to prevalent pests and diseases, resilient to climate change, and, critically, possess the traits demanded by the processing sector (e.g., high dry matter, long dormancy).¹⁰ The introduction of over 34 Dutch varieties into Kenya, including the Napoleon variety specifically bred for crisping, demonstrates a viable pathway for diversification.⁹ The registration of new varieties like Java, Maverick, and Buffalo through development projects further expands the options available to farmers.¹⁸

Rapid Multiplication Technologies (RMTs): The traditional method of seed multiplication through field bulking is too slow to meet the demand for clean seed and to rapidly scale new varieties.¹⁴ The solution lies in the widespread adoption of RMTs. Technologies such as aeroponics, hydroponics, and rooted apical cuttings can dramatically increase multiplication rates in sterile, soil-less environments, reducing the time it takes to get clean starter material to seed producers.¹⁴ A particularly promising innovation is True Potato Seed (TPS). TPS is botanical seed, not a tuber, which makes it lightweight, far cheaper to transport than bulky seed tubers, and inherently free from tuber-borne diseases. Its potential to revolutionize the logistics and phytosanitary quality of the seed system has led experts to label it a “game changer” for Kenyan agriculture.¹⁶

Regulatory and Policy Reform: The current regulatory framework acts as a significant bottleneck. A series of targeted reforms is necessary to create an enabling environment for a modern seed industry. This includes:

• Reforming Import Policies: Moving from a rigid zero-tolerance policy on seed imports to a more flexible, science-based risk assessment approach to facilitate faster access to new genetics.¹⁹
• Liberalizing Certification: Allowing for private seed certification and authorizing qualified third-party inspectors to conduct field visits. This would augment the capacity of the overstretched Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) and accelerate the certification process.¹⁴
• Regional Harmonization: Aligning Kenya’s seed laws and variety testing protocols with regional standards, such as those of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC), to reduce duplication of trials and speed up the release of new varieties across borders.¹⁴
• Pragmatic Standards: Adopting intermediate quality assurance standards like Quality Declared Seed (QDS). This would create a regulated space for small and medium-sized seed producers who may not be able to meet the stringent requirements of full certification but can still produce seed of a much higher quality than what is available in the informal market.¹⁴

Case Study: The Impact of the Kenya-Netherlands Seed Potato Partnership

The long-standing collaboration between Kenya and the Netherlands serves as an exemplary model for successful technology and knowledge transfer in the potato sector. This partnership has been instrumental in navigating the complex phytosanitary concerns associated with seed importation through a bilateral agreement that established clear protocols.⁶ It has facilitated the introduction and rigorous testing of dozens of new Dutch varieties, building the evidence base for their commercialization in Kenya.⁶ Furthermore, the collaboration has included crucial capacity-building components, such as training for KEPHIS inspectors on modern disease identification and inspection protocols, thereby strengthening the entire regulatory system.⁹ This partnership demonstrates that with careful planning and mutual trust, international collaboration can be a powerful catalyst for establishing a viable domestic seed multiplication sector.

The debate between formal and informal seed systems often presents a false choice. A purely formal system is unlikely to reach all 800,000 smallholders in the near term, while the informal system perpetuates low productivity. The most pragmatic and scalable solution is a hybrid approach. This involves using the formal system and advanced RMTs to produce a sufficient quantity of high-quality early-generation seed (basic seed). This basic seed can then be supplied to a decentralized network of trained, small- and medium-scale seed multipliers—including farmer cooperatives—who can produce and sell QDS to their local communities. This strategy leverages the extensive reach of the existing informal network but injects it with high-quality genetic material and knowledge, systematically upgrading the entire seed stock over time.

A functional seed system is the critical catalyst that can create a virtuous cycle throughout the value chain. By making high-quality, processor-preferred seed varieties widely available, it provides the essential raw material that the processing industry needs. This availability gives processors the confidence to invest and enter into formal offtake arrangements, such as contract farming. These contracts, in turn, provide farmers with a guaranteed market and a stable price, giving them the financial security and incentive to purchase the more expensive certified seed and invest in other productivity-enhancing inputs. In this way, fixing the seed system is the first and most crucial step to unlocking the entire value chain’s potential.

Variety Name	Primary Use	Yield Potential (t/ha)	Dormancy Period	Key Strengths	Key Weaknesses/Challenges
Shangi	Fresh Market	7-15	Short	Fast maturity, good boiling/mashing qualities, high market demand in fresh markets.12	Very short dormancy leads to rapid sprouting, unsuitable for long-term storage or processing, high susceptibility to diseases like late blight.11
Unica	Fresh Market	20-30	Long	Good for fresh market, long dormancy makes it suitable for extended storage and transportation, especially in structured markets.12	Lower demand than Shangi in major urban fresh markets unless Shangi is scarce.12
Napoleon	Crisping	High	High	Specifically bred for crisping with high dry matter and minimal oil absorption, high dormancy allows for long storage, approved by KEPHIS.10	Not yet widely available commercially, requires specific agronomic practices to achieve processing quality.10
Java	Processing (French Fries), Fresh Market	High	Medium-Long	Good yield potential, disease resistance, suitable for both processing and fresh consumption.18	As a new variety, seed availability and farmer awareness are still limited.
Maverick	Processing (French Fries), Fresh Market	High	Medium-Long	Offers farmers better yield potential and disease resistance compared to older varieties.18	Seed system needs to scale up production to ensure widespread access.

Table 1: Comparative Analysis of Key Potato Varieties in Kenya

Section 4: Bridging the Yield Gap: Revolutionizing On-Farm Production

While a reformed seed system provides the necessary genetic potential, realizing that potential requires a revolution in on-farm production practices. The vast yield gap in Kenya is not solely a result of poor seed; it is compounded by a widespread lack of adoption of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs). Closing this gap necessitates a holistic approach that combines technical training with business education, financial access, and robust extension services, drawing lessons from successful domestic projects and international best practices.

The Compounding Effect of Poor Practices

Beyond the use of recycled seed, low productivity on Kenyan potato farms is driven by a cluster of suboptimal agronomic practices. These include inadequate land preparation, failure to conduct soil testing, leading to imbalanced or insufficient fertilizer application, poor management of pests and diseases, and improper water management.⁹ Many smallholder farmers lack the technical knowledge to implement GAPs effectively. Critically, they also often lack the financial resources to invest in the necessary inputs. Studies have established a clear and significant link between a farmer’s access to credit and their likelihood of adopting GAPs; lack of capital is a primary barrier preventing farmers from purchasing quality fertilizer, crop protection products, and other essential inputs.²¹

Scaling Success: Evidence-Based Models for Transformation

Several development programs in Kenya have demonstrated that targeted, well-designed interventions can dramatically improve on-farm productivity and farmer livelihoods. These projects provide a blueprint for what works and can be scaled nationally.

• The Potato Value Chain Capacity Building (PCB) Project: Implemented in Nyandarua County, the PCB project offers a powerful case study in integrated value chain development. By working directly with over 6,500 farmers, the project successfully increased yields by up to 60%. Its success was built on a multi-faceted approach that included not only technical training but also linking 900 farmers to buyers through contract farming and mobilizing over €300,000 to improve access to certified seed.¹⁸
• The Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) Program: This large-scale program reached over 74,000 farmers and achieved significant impact, increasing average yields from 7.7 to 11.5 tonnes per hectare. This productivity jump translated into tangible economic gains, with beneficiary farmers generating a total of $34 million in sales over the project’s lifetime. A key element of the AVCD’s success was its investment in institutional capacity, training dozens of government extension officers and supporting the growth of self-sufficient farmer cooperatives.⁵

The Central Role of Farmer Training and Business Acumen

A crucial lesson from these successful interventions is that technical training on GAPs, while necessary, is not sufficient on its own. To drive sustained adoption and transform farming into a profitable enterprise, this technical knowledge must be integrated with business skills and clear market linkages. The Farmer Field Business School (FFBS) model, a cornerstone of the PCB project, proved instrumental in achieving this. The FFBS approach moves beyond simple agronomic instruction to help farmers view their farms as businesses. It integrates practical training on financial management, market analysis, and group empowerment with lessons on sustainable agricultural practices. This holistic education empowers farmers to make informed investment decisions, negotiate better with buyers, and ultimately shift their mindset from subsistence survival to commercial agribusiness.¹⁸

The most effective interventions are those that create a complete ecosystem of support around the farmer. An Agrico-led trial highlighted this powerfully by comparing three groups of farmers: a “basic” group with no support, an “advanced” group that received training on GAPs, and a “connected” group that received the same training plus guaranteed market access. The results were stark: the advanced group tripled their yield compared to the basic group, but the connected group increased their yield by a factor of six and their income by a factor of nine.²⁰ This demonstrates that farmers are most likely to invest in and adopt improved practices when they have a clear, reliable, and profitable pathway to market.

Lessons from International Best Practices (South Africa)

The South African potato industry offers valuable lessons in sustainable and precise farm management. Successful commercial farming there is built on a foundation of meticulous preparation and data-driven decision-making. The process begins with comprehensive soil testing to determine precise nutrient requirements. Inputs like fertilizers are not applied according to a generic calendar but based on regular leaf analysis throughout the growing season to address the crop’s real-time needs.²² Soil health is prioritized through practices like minimum tillage, in-house composting, and, most importantly, structured crop rotation. A typical five-year rotation cycle—alternating potatoes with other crops, cover crops, and fallow periods—is essential for breaking pest and disease cycles and maintaining the long-term fertility of the soil.²² These practices, combined with strategic water management, form a holistic system that maximizes both productivity and sustainability.

The scaling of these successful models in Kenya depends critically on the capacity of local institutions. Agriculture is a devolved function, and county governments are on the front lines of providing extension services. The success of the AVCD program was explicitly tied to its close partnership with county governments, which co-invested in the sector and integrated potatoes into their development plans.⁵ Therefore, any national strategy to bridge the yield gap must include a significant component for strengthening the capacity of county-level agricultural departments and extension officers, empowering them to deliver these proven, integrated training models to the last mile.

Section 5: From Glut to Stability: Overcoming Post-Harvest Losses

A critical and often underestimated bottleneck in the Kenyan potato value chain occurs after the crop has left the field. Enormous post-harvest losses, driven by a lack of proper storage infrastructure and poor handling practices, decimate potential income for farmers, create extreme price volatility, and undermine the sector’s ability to supply markets consistently. Transforming post-harvest management from a source of loss into a mechanism for value preservation and strategic marketing is essential for building a resilient and profitable potato industry.

Quantifying the Crisis: The Scale of Post-Harvest Losses

The scale of post-harvest losses in Kenya is staggering. Estimates suggest that farmers lose between 30% and 40% of their harvested potatoes before they can be sold.¹⁶ This represents not only a tragic waste of food but also a massive financial blow to smallholder farmers. The annual value of these losses is estimated to be as high as KES 12.9 billion.¹⁵

The root cause of these losses is the near-total absence of adequate on-farm or near-farm storage facilities.²³ This infrastructural deficit forces the vast majority of farmers to sell their entire crop immediately after harvest. This synchronized selling floods the market, creating a supply glut that causes prices to plummet.¹³ Farmers are thus compelled to sell at the lowest point in the annual price cycle, robbing them of the opportunity to benefit from higher prices during the off-season. This problem is severely exacerbated by the dominance of the Shangi variety, whose short dormancy makes it inherently unsuitable for storage, reinforcing the pressure for immediate sale.¹³

Innovations in Storage: A Spectrum of Solutions

Fortunately, a range of technological solutions exists to address this challenge, catering to different scales of operation and capital investment. A national strategy should promote a spectrum of these technologies to build a distributed and resilient storage network.

• Zero-Energy Cold Storage: A breakthrough for small-scale farmers and cooperatives in off-grid areas is the zero-energy cold storage model. Pioneered by companies like Hanse AgroStore in Uasin Gishu County, these facilities use innovative design principles based on natural ventilation and high-quality insulation to maintain cool internal temperatures without requiring any electricity. This simple yet effective technology can preserve potatoes for up to six months, allowing farmers to completely bypass the harvest-time price slump and sell when market conditions are favorable. This model is highly scalable, sustainable, and appropriate for the rural Kenyan context.¹⁶
• Modular, Powered Cold Rooms: For larger farmer groups or commercial operations, modular cold rooms offer a more advanced solution. Companies like InspiraFarms provide containerized, turnkey cold storage units that can be installed on-farm or at collection centers. These systems offer precise temperature and humidity control, can incorporate pre-cooling functions to rapidly remove field heat, and can be powered by the grid or by hybrid solar solutions. Their modular design allows them to be expanded as a business grows.²⁶
• State-of-the-Art Seed and Ware Potato Storage: At the highest end of the technology spectrum, specialized storage facilities are being introduced by firms like Verde Technologies/Tolsma Grisnich BV. These advanced systems are designed to meticulously manage environmental conditions to extend the dormancy period of potatoes. This capability is crucial for two key segments: preserving the quality and viability of high-value certified seed potatoes, and ensuring a consistent, year-round supply of high-quality ware potatoes to the processing industry.¹⁶

Building a Resilient Post-Harvest Infrastructure

The solution is not merely to build isolated storage units but to integrate them into a functional system. This requires promoting cooperative-led storage models, where farmers can pool their resources to invest in and manage a shared facility, as has been done successfully in Nyandarua County.²⁴

A critical next step is to link these storage facilities to a formal Warehouse Receipt System. The 120-metric-ton facility established at the Pesi Farmers’ Cooperative Society is a prime example of this potential. Once this facility is certified by the Warehouse Receipt System Council, farmers will be able to deposit their potatoes and receive a formal receipt. This receipt serves as legal proof of ownership of a quality-assessed commodity, which can then be used as collateral to secure loans from financial institutions.¹⁸ This innovation is transformative: it turns potatoes from a highly perishable liability into a stable, bankable asset, fundamentally changing the financial landscape for farmers.

Investment in post-harvest infrastructure creates a powerful price stabilization mechanism that fundamentally shifts bargaining power from middlemen to farmers. The ability to store their produce allows farmers to transition from being desperate price-takers at harvest time to strategic marketers who can choose to sell throughout the year. The significant price differential between the harvest glut and the lean season—which can be over 40%—represents a direct and substantial income gain for farmers who can access storage.¹³ This additional income provides the capital needed to break the cycle of poverty, enabling reinvestment in certified seed, fertilizers, and other GAPs for the subsequent season.

However, the full economic benefit of storage infrastructure is only realized when it is coupled with a strategy for varietal diversification. The economic viability of storage is currently questioned precisely because the dominant Shangi variety is so poorly suited to it.¹³ Investing in an advanced cold store to preserve a short-dormancy variety yields minimal returns. The true value is unlocked when these facilities are used to store long-dormancy varieties suitable for processing. Therefore, a national storage strategy must be developed in tandem with the national seed system strategy. Building stores without changing the genetic material that goes into them will result in underutilized and unprofitable infrastructure. This synergy between genetics and infrastructure is a critical planning consideration for a successful value chain transformation.

Section 6: Forging the Missing Links: Modernizing Market Structures

A productive farming sector is of little value if its produce cannot reach markets efficiently, transparently, and profitably. The Kenyan potato value chain is currently hampered by fragmented, informal market structures that are characterized by high transaction costs, information asymmetry, and unequal power dynamics. The strategic imperative is to foster a transition towards more structured, formal, and integrated market systems that can provide stability for farmers and ensure quality for buyers.

The Problem with Informal Markets

The prevailing market structure for most smallholder potato farmers is the informal spot market. This system is dominated by a long chain of middlemen and brokers, which often results in farmers receiving only a small fraction of the final consumer price.²⁷ The market is plagued by a lack of standardization; despite the existence of the Crops (Irish Potato) Regulations, 2019, which mandate a 50kg bag, the use of oversized “extended” bags to exploit farmers remains common.¹² This environment of high risk, low trust, and price volatility discourages farmers from investing in quality and productivity, as they have no assurance of a fair return.²⁹

Moving Towards Formalization

Three key models—farmer aggregation, contract farming, and digital platforms—offer a pathway to formalize and modernize these market linkages.

Farmer Aggregation through Cooperatives: For individual smallholders, collective action is the most powerful tool for improving market access. By organizing into cooperatives or other producer organizations, farmers can achieve the economies of scale necessary to attract and supply major buyers, such as processors, supermarkets, and large-scale traders.¹² Aggregation allows for the pooling of produce to meet large volume requirements, improves consistency in quality through shared standards, and significantly strengthens farmers’ collective bargaining power in price negotiations.¹² Well-run cooperatives can also become hubs for service delivery, facilitating access to inputs, credit, and extension for their members. The Nandi Potato Farmers’ Cooperative Society stands out as a nationally recognized model of success. It has become a financially self-sufficient organization that not only markets its members’ ware potatoes but has also acquired a license to produce and sell its own certified seed, demonstrating a high level of business sophistication.⁵

Contract Farming: The Linchpin for Processor-Farmer Integration: Contract farming is a powerful mechanism for creating a direct, stable link between producers and processors. Under such an arrangement, farmers cultivate potatoes for a buyer based on a pre-agreed price and quality specifications.²⁹ This model offers a win-win proposition. For farmers, it provides a guaranteed market, shielding them from the price volatility of the open market and ensuring a stable income, which in turn allows them to plan and invest with greater confidence.²⁷ For processors, it guarantees a reliable and consistent supply of raw material that meets their specific quality standards, which is essential for efficient factory operations.² The most effective contract farming schemes go beyond a simple purchase agreement and bundle the contract with a comprehensive support package, providing farmers with access to high-quality certified seed, appropriate fertilizers, credit, and technical advice from extension officers.²⁷ However, it is crucial to manage the inherent risks, such as the potential for unequal power dynamics between a large buyer and small farmers, and the risk of farmer dropout if side-selling on the open market becomes more attractive.³² To mitigate these risks, fair and transparent contract design, along with oversight and mediation support from a neutral body like the National Potato Council of Kenya (NPCK), is essential.²⁷

The Digital Frontier: Enhancing Market Efficiency: Digital platforms are emerging as a key enabler for modernizing market linkages. Digital Agricultural Marketing Platforms (DAMPs) like Viazi Soko and M-shamba are transforming how actors in the value chain connect and transact.⁵ These platforms serve multiple functions: they provide farmers with real-time market price information, connect them directly with a wide range of input suppliers and potential buyers, and reduce the transaction costs associated with finding market opportunities.³³ Platforms like Viazi Soko have also integrated innovative services, such as allowing farmers to pre-order certified seed with a small down payment, which helps seed producers plan their production and ensures timely access for farmers.¹⁸ The adoption of these digital tools is currently higher among younger, more tech-savvy farmers with higher incomes. To ensure inclusivity and maximize the impact of these platforms, targeted support and training programs are needed to improve the digital literacy of older farmers and those with lower incomes.³³

These three models—cooperatives, contract farming, and digital platforms—should not be viewed as separate alternatives but as mutually reinforcing components of an integrated market system. The most robust and scalable market structure is one that combines all three: a well-organized farmer cooperative that leverages a digital platform to manage a collective contract farming agreement with a major processor. In this integrated model, the processor benefits from the efficiency of negotiating with a single entity (the cooperative) that can guarantee large, aggregated volumes. The cooperative uses the digital platform as an operational backbone to manage its members, track input distribution, monitor quality, and coordinate logistics. The individual farmer benefits from the price stability and market security of the contract, delivered through the efficient and transparent structure of their cooperative. This integrated approach de-risks the relationship for all parties and creates the stable, predictable environment needed for long-term investment and growth.

Furthermore, the formalization of market linkages provides a powerful, market-driven mechanism for enforcing quality standards and regulations. It is exceedingly difficult for government inspectors to police the 50kg bag rule in thousands of informal transactions across the country. However, within a contract farming relationship, adherence to such standards becomes a non-negotiable contractual obligation. Processors have a strong commercial incentive to enforce standards for packaging, grading, and quality because it is essential for their own operational efficiency. Promoting these structured trade relationships is therefore a more effective and sustainable path to regulatory compliance than relying on state enforcement alone.

Model	Price Stability for Farmer	Access to Quality Inputs/Services	Quality Assurance for Buyer	Transaction Costs	Scalability	Key Risks/Challenges
Spot Market (Informal)	Very Low	Very Low	Very Low	High (due to multiple intermediaries)	High (but inefficient)	Price volatility, exploitation by middlemen, lack of standards, high post-harvest losses.27
Farmer Cooperatives (Aggregation)	Medium	Medium	Medium	Medium (reduced for individual farmers)	Medium	Weak governance, financial mismanagement, elite capture, requires strong leadership and member trust.5
Contract Farming	High	High (often bundled)	High	Low (direct linkage)	Medium	Unequal power dynamics, risk of farmer side-selling or buyer default, potential impact on household food security.27
Digital Platforms	Medium-High	Medium-High	Medium	Low (for information search)	High	Digital divide (age, income), requires digital literacy, risk of platform failure or unsustainability.5

Table 2: Evaluation of Market Linkage Models

Section 7: Financing the Transformation: Unlocking Capital for Growth

The transformation of Kenya’s potato sector from a low-input, subsistence-oriented system to a modern, commercial industry is contingent upon a significant injection of capital. Currently, a pervasive credit gap acts as a major brake on progress, preventing farmers and other value chain actors from making the critical investments needed to improve productivity and efficiency. Designing and deploying appropriate, accessible, and affordable financial products is therefore a cornerstone of any viable transformation strategy.

Analyzing the Credit Gap

Smallholder farmers in Kenya, and particularly women who constitute a large portion of the agricultural labor force, face systemic barriers to accessing formal financial services.¹⁵ Commercial lenders often perceive small-scale agriculture as a high-risk sector due to factors like climate vulnerability, price volatility, and the lack of traditional collateral among farmers. This financial exclusion has direct and severe consequences for the potato value chain. Without access to credit, farmers are unable to afford essential productivity-enhancing inputs, most notably certified seed and appropriate fertilizers.²¹ This lack of capital is consistently identified as a primary reason for the low adoption rates of GAPs, trapping farmers in a cycle of low investment and low returns.²¹ Even when credit is available, high interest rates can make borrowing unviable, further deterring investment.²¹

Designing Appropriate Financial Products

To bridge this credit gap, there is a need to move beyond generic loan products and develop financial solutions that are specifically tailored to the unique needs and cash flow cycles of the potato value chain. A review of the Kenyan financial market reveals a range of agricultural loan products offered by commercial banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs), such as Stanbic Bank’s Agricultural Production Loan or Juhudi Kilimo’s asset-based financing.³⁵ While valuable, a more targeted and innovative suite of products is required:

• Embedded Input Financing: This is one of the most effective models, where credit is provided “in-kind” for specific inputs like certified seed and fertilizer. This financing is often bundled directly into a contract farming or offtake agreement. The cost of the inputs is advanced to the farmer at the beginning of the season and then deducted from the final payment for the harvested potatoes. This “closed-loop” system significantly de-risks the loan for the lender and ensures the capital is used for its intended productive purpose.³¹
• Asset Financing: Tailored loans are needed to help farmers and cooperatives invest in productive assets. This could include financing for small-scale mechanization (e.g., planters, harvesters), irrigation equipment, or the construction of on-farm or cooperative-level storage facilities.
• Warehouse Receipt Financing: As post-harvest infrastructure develops, this becomes a game-changing financial product. It allows farmers to use the formal receipt from a certified warehouse as collateral to secure a loan. This enables them to meet their immediate cash flow needs without being forced to sell their produce at low harvest-time prices, giving them the financial flexibility to wait for better market conditions.¹⁸
• LPO and Trade Financing: Financial products like Local Purchase Order (LPO) financing are crucial for actors further down the chain, such as aggregators and traders, providing them with the working capital needed to procure potatoes from farmers in a timely manner.³⁵

De-risking Investment: The Role of Partnerships and Blended Finance

To unlock lending from commercial financial institutions at scale, strategies must be implemented to mitigate the real and perceived risks of agricultural finance. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are essential in this regard. Development partners and government can play a catalytic role by establishing blended finance mechanisms. This could involve creating loan guarantee funds that absorb a portion of the risk for commercial banks, or providing first-loss capital to encourage lending to farmer cooperatives and agricultural SMEs.

Another powerful de-risking tool is the integration of financial products with agricultural insurance. Bundling a production loan with a crop insurance policy protects both the farmer and the lender against catastrophic losses from climate-related events like drought, floods, or frost.³¹ This creates a more secure lending environment and enhances the resilience of the entire system.

The most successful financial interventions are those that are deeply embedded within the value chain’s commercial relationships rather than being offered as standalone products. A processor providing an input loan to a contracted farmer, with repayment secured through the final purchase, is a far more efficient and less risky model than a farmer seeking an unsecured cash loan from a bank. This principle of embedded finance, where credit flows alongside goods and services within the value chain, should be the guiding philosophy for financial product design.

Furthermore, the development of physical infrastructure, particularly post-harvest storage, is a direct prerequisite for unlocking more sophisticated financial services. A farmer with a perishable harvest and no storage is a high-risk, unbankable client. The same farmer, once able to store their produce in a certified facility, possesses a stable, quantifiable asset. The introduction of a Warehouse Receipt System formalizes this stored produce into a legally recognized and transferable financial instrument. This simple transformation of a physical asset into a financial one makes the farmer significantly more creditworthy in the eyes of a lender. Therefore, investments in “hard” infrastructure like storage facilities are simultaneously investments in the “soft” infrastructure of financial inclusion, creating the foundation upon which a modern, well-capitalized potato sector can be built.

Section 8: An Integrated Solutions Framework: A Blueprint for a Thriving Potato Sector

The challenges confronting Kenya’s potato sector are systemic and interconnected. A piecemeal approach—focusing only on seed, or only on markets—will fail to achieve lasting transformation. A successful strategy requires a holistic and integrated framework where progress in one area creates momentum and enables success in others. This section synthesizes the preceding analysis into a five-pillar strategic blueprint. These pillars are interdependent and must be pursued concurrently to create the virtuous cycle needed to solve the Potato Paradox and build a vibrant, competitive, and inclusive industry.

Pillar 1: Foundational Reform of the Seed System

This pillar addresses the root cause of low productivity by creating a modern, dynamic, and market-responsive seed system.

• Policy: Immediately begin the process of regulatory reform. This involves transitioning from zero-tolerance seed import policies to a science-based, risk-managed approach to accelerate access to new global genetics.¹⁹ Concurrently, new legislation should be enacted to formally allow for private seed certification and the accreditation of third-party inspectors, thereby expanding the nation’s certification capacity beyond the limits of KEPHIS.¹⁴ Kenya should also champion the harmonization of seed regulations and variety release protocols within the EAC to create a larger, more efficient regional market.¹⁴
• Technology: Establish a network of public-private partnership-driven “Multiplication Hubs” for Rapid Multiplication Technologies. These hubs, co-located with institutions like KALRO and in key production counties, will focus on scaling up clean starter material for new, high-demand varieties using techniques like apical cuttings, aeroponics, and True Potato Seed (TPS).¹⁴
• Market: Launch a national campaign, led by the NPCK and its partners, to drive awareness and adoption of new, processor-preferred varieties. This should be supported by a widespread network of demonstration plots managed by lead farmers and cooperatives, showcasing the agronomic and economic benefits of these varieties. Financial incentives, such as initial seed subsidies, could be used to encourage trial and adoption.⁶

Pillar 2: Intensification of Sustainable Production

This pillar focuses on closing the on-farm yield gap by equipping farmers with the knowledge, skills, and inputs to maximize their productivity sustainably.

• Extension: Scale the proven Farmer Field Business School (FFBS) model to become the national standard for potato extension. This will require a large-scale “training of trainers” program targeting all county-level agricultural extension officers and selected lead farmers from major cooperatives, equipping them to deliver this integrated agronomic and business curriculum.¹⁸
• Inputs: Develop a national system of accredited agro-dealers who are certified to sell genuine, high-quality inputs (fertilizers, crop protection products). These accredited dealers should be integrated into digital platforms like Viazi Soko to enhance transparency and provide farmers with a reliable source of quality products.¹⁸
• Climate Resilience: Actively promote the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices, drawing lessons from successful models in regions like South Africa. This includes training and support for minimum tillage, on-farm composting, water harvesting techniques, and the use of cover crops to improve soil health and water retention.²

Pillar 3: Development of National Post-Harvest Infrastructure

This pillar aims to drastically reduce post-harvest losses, stabilize prices, and transform potatoes into a bankable asset for farmers.

• Investment: Create a blended finance facility, combining public funds and development partner capital with commercial investment, to co-finance the construction of a national network of storage facilities. Investment should be prioritized for cooperative-owned facilities in key production zones, with a focus on appropriate technologies like zero-energy and solar-powered cold storage solutions.²⁴
• Integration: Fast-track the nationwide rollout of the Warehouse Receipt System for potatoes. This involves certifying qualifying storage facilities and establishing the legal and operational linkages with financial institutions to enable widespread, accessible receipt-based lending.¹⁸

Pillar 4: Formalization and Integration of the Value Chain

This pillar focuses on building the structured, transparent, and efficient market linkages that are essential for a commercial industry.

• Cooperatives: Launch a national capacity-building program for potato farmer cooperatives. This program, managed by the State Department for Co-operatives in partnership with the NPCK, will provide targeted support in governance, financial management, business planning, and marketing to strengthen these crucial institutions.⁵
• Contract Farming: Establish a national task force, convened by the NPCK and including representatives from farmer organizations, processors, and legal experts, to develop standardized, fair, and legally sound contract farming templates. The NPCK should be empowered to act as a registration and mediation body to promote best practices and resolve disputes.²⁷
• Digitalization: Designate and invest in the Viazi Soko platform to become the central digital backbone for the sector. The platform’s functionality should be expanded to serve as an integrated system for farmer registration, input ordering, extension messaging, quality traceability, and market linkage facilitation, connecting all major actors in the value chain.⁵

Pillar 5: Creation of an Enabling Policy and Financial Environment

This final pillar ensures that the policy framework and financial system actively support and accelerate the transformation driven by the other four pillars.

• Regulation: Commit to the full and consistent enforcement of the Crops (Irish Potato) Regulations, 2019. Enforcement efforts, particularly for the critical 50kg packaging standard, should be strategically focused on formal aggregation points like designated collection centers and processor receiving gates, where compliance can be monitored most effectively.²⁸
• Coordination: Strengthen the institutional mechanisms for coordination between national-level bodies (e.g., AFA, NPCK, KEPHIS) and county governments. This will ensure that national strategies are effectively translated into harmonized and well-resourced implementation plans at the local level.²⁸
• Finance: Launch a dedicated Potato Sector Transformation Fund. This fund would use public and donor capital to de-risk private sector lending into the value chain. It could offer targeted instruments like partial loan guarantees or interest rate subsidies for commercial loans that are directly aligned with the strategic pillars—for example, loans to cooperatives for storage construction, to seed companies for RMT investment, or to processors for upgrading their facilities.

Key Provision of the Regulations	Implementation Status	Key Enforcement Challenges	Proposed Strategic Action (from Framework)
Registration of Growers & Dealers	Partial/Inconsistent	Gaps in farmer registration, weak enforcement capacity at county level, lack of incentives for informal actors to register.28	Integrate registration into digital platforms (Pillar 4) and cooperative membership drives (Pillar 4). Link registration to access to services (Pillar 2 & 5).
50kg Maximum Package Weight	Low/Inconsistent	Widespread use of “extended bags” in informal markets, strong resistance from middlemen, insufficient number of inspectors.28	Focus enforcement at formal market points (processor gates, collection centers) where compliance can be a contractual requirement (Pillar 4).
Sale at Designated Collection Centers	Low	Most trade still occurs at farm-gate or in informal markets. Insufficient number of well-equipped, designated centers.36	Invest in cooperative-owned collection centers with storage infrastructure (Pillar 3). Promote their use through contract farming schemes (Pillar 4).
Unit of Measurement in Kilogram (Kg)	Partial	Pricing by bag (of variable weight) is still common. Lack of certified scales at many transaction points.28	Mandate weight-based pricing in all formal contracts (Pillar 4). Support cooperatives to acquire certified scales (Pillar 3 & 5).

Table 3: Implementation Scorecard for the Crops (Irish Potato) Regulations, 2019

Works cited

1. Unlocking Potato Value Chain for Employment Opportunities in Kenya – KIPPRA, accessed October 9, 2025, https://kippra.or.ke/unlocking-potato-value-chain-for-employment-opportunities-in-kenya/
2. Developing the Potato Value Chain in Kenya, accessed October 9, 2025, https://potatocongress.org/developing-the-potato-value-chain-in-kenya/
3. Factsheet Resilience Solutions for the Potato Sector in Kenya, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.ndf.int/media/files/news_attach/factsheet_kenya_potato.pdf
4. Factsheet Resilience Solutions for the Potato sector in Kenya – IADB Publications – Inter-American Development Bank, accessed October 9, 2025, https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Factsheet-Resilience-Solutions-for-the-Potato-Sector-in-Kenya.pdf?download=true
5. Enhanced capacity and management increases sales of potato for …, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.cgiar.org/annual-report/performance-report-2021/enhanced-capacity-and-management-increases-sales-of-potato-for-kenyan-farmers/
6. Bridging the potato variety gap: A review of the Kenya – The Netherlands potato project (2012-2015): Its success, challenges and opportunities – ResearchGate, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318190563_Bridging_the_potato_variety_gap_A_review_of_the_Kenya_-_The_Netherlands_potato_project_2012-2015_Its_success_challenges_and_opportunities
7. Modernization Options for the Potato Value Chain in Kenya and Nigeria, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.npck.org/Books/Final%20PIA%20intervention%20booklet.pdf
8. The value chain for seed and ware potatoes in Kenya: Opportunities for development – Wageningen University & Research, accessed October 9, 2025, https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/the-value-chain-for-seed-and-ware-potatoes-in-kenya-opportunities
9. Collaborative training for seed potato inspectors aimed at boosting …, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.agroberichtenbuitenland.nl/actueel/nieuws/2024/01/30/collaborative-training-for-seed-potato-inspectors-aimed-at-boosting-potato-production-in-kenya
10. Advancing Kenya’s potato sector through innovation, improvements, and impact, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.agroberichtenbuitenland.nl/actueel/nieuws/2025/07/02/advancing-kenyas-potato-sector-through-innovation-improvements-and-impact
11. Digital Revolution in Farmer Fields: VarScout Unveils Kenya’s Varietal Landscape – The Case of Potato – CGSpace, accessed October 9, 2025, https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstreams/641572a4-bb16-462c-a0f9-b8c673d783ea/download
12. ENHANCING WARE POTATO MARKETING IN KENYA – NPCK, accessed October 9, 2025, https://npck.org/enhancing-ware-potato-marketing-in-kenya/
13. Social-economic feasibility of potato postharvest storage using differing storage units 1 – CGSpace, accessed October 9, 2025, https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstreams/273a81ed-695d-48a1-818b-46abc667c3c5/download
14. Developing the Quality Seed Potato Sector in the East … – CGSpace, accessed October 9, 2025, https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstreams/8517df00-e66f-42db-8e63-e5e13809b794/download
15. Desk Review: Advancing the Potato Value Chain and Financial Structures in Kenya, Tanzania, and Rwanda: Key Insights and Strategies – Kilimo Kwanza, accessed October 9, 2025, https://kilimokwanza.org/desk-review-advancing-the-potato-value-chain-and-financial-structures-in-kenya-tanzania-and-rwanda-key-insights-and-strategies/
16. Innovations Catalyzing Growth in Kenya’s Potato Sector …, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.agroberichtenbuitenland.nl/actueel/nieuws/2024/09/23/innovations-catalyzing-growth-in-kenyas-potato-sector
17. Contributing to a conducive business climate for the development of the seed potato sector in Kenya – WUR, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.wur.nl/en/show/seed_potato_phase3.htm
18. How the PCB Project Enhanced Potato Farming in Kenya – IFDC, accessed October 9, 2025, https://ifdc.org/2025/02/26/6-years-of-progress-how-the-pcb-project-revolutionized-potato-farming-in-nyandarua-county/
19. kenya seed potato industry diagnostic – International Finance …, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/mgrt/ifc-kspid-report-final.pdf
20. The Potato Magazine Kenya 2019 Edition, accessed October 9, 2025, https://npck.org/Magazines/ThePotatoMagazineKenya2019(003).pdf
21. (PDF) Does access to credit influence the adoption of good agricultural practices? The case of smallholder potato farmers in Molo Sub-County, Kenya – ResearchGate, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360155756_Does_access_to_credit_influence_the_adoption_of_good_agricultural_practices_The_case_of_smallholder_potato_farmers_in_Molo_Sub-County_Kenya
22. Farming Potatoes in South Africa: What You Need to Know – RegenZ, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.regenz.co.za/resources/farming-potatoes-in-south-africa
23. Table of Contents – African Development Bank Group, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.afdb.org/sites/default/files/2024/03/26/abm_add_cold_storing_potatoes_version_2.0_20220218_clean_dl.pdf
24. Smart cold storage Solutions Helping Kenyan Potato Farmers Cut Post-Harvest Losses, accessed October 9, 2025, https://npck.org/smart-cold-storage-solutions-helping-kenyan-potato-farmers-cut-post-harvest-losses/
25. Ainabkoi Farmers’ Cooperative Society – Hanse AgroStore, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.hanseagrostore.com/projecten/ainabkoi-farmers-cooperative-society/
26. Cold Rooms – InspiraFarms, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.inspirafarms.com/products/cold_room/
27. In Kenya, struggling potato growers ink a new deal | News | Eco-Business | Asia Pacific, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.eco-business.com/news/in-kenya-struggling-potato-growers-ink-a-new-deal/
28. Strengthening the Implementation of Irish Potato Regulations in Kenya – IFDC, accessed October 9, 2025, https://ifdc.org/2024/11/08/strengthening-the-implementation-of-irish-potato-regulations/
29. Promoting the Kenyan Potato Value Chain: Can Contract Farming Help Build Trust and Reduce Transaction Risks? – IDEAS/RePEc, accessed October 9, 2025, https://ideas.repec.org/p/ags/eaae99/7726.html
30. Case studies of suCCess stories in Kenya’s agribusiness seCtor – WorldFish Digital Repository, accessed October 9, 2025, https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5453/a72f30fe82e5041bf0591e35b0e04ea9.pdf?sequence2=
31. Potato Contract Farming: Opportunities and responsibilities for …, accessed October 9, 2025, https://npck.org/potato-contract-farming-opportunities-and-responsibilities-for-farmers/
32. Smallholder Farmers’ Dissatisfaction with Contract Schemes in Spite of Economic Benefits: Issues of Mistrust and Lack of Transparency, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2020.1850699
33. Drivers of extent of commercialization of potato farming … – Frontiers, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1307978/pdf
34. Agriculture and Processing Financing Market Analysis | FSD Kenya, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.fsdkenya.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Agriculture-and-Processing-Financing-Market-Analysis.pdf
35. LIST OF THE MAIN KENYAN FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS THAT PROVIDE LOANS TOTHE AGRICULUTRE SECTOR, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.canr.msu.edu/hrt/research/usaid/Appendix%201%20-%20List%20Financial%20Istitutions%20in%20Agriculture.pdf
36. Crop Irish Potato – Regulations 2019 – SNV, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.snv.org/assets/downloads/f/191310/fc8438c800/potato_regulations_implementation_manual_single.pdf
37. Quick Guide – SNV, accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.snv.org/assets/downloads/f/191310/deaa0ed8b6/irish_potato_regulations_booklet_a6.pdf